---
title: "阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論 · 2"
description: "阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論是佛教重要論典，由五百大阿羅漢集體編撰，唐代高僧玄奘譯為中文。該論形成於公元2世紀左右，屬說一切有部根本論書，系統闡釋《發智論》要義，涵蓋佛法名相、修行次第與教理體系。全書以問答形式展開，詳細辨析諸法實相，被視為部派佛教時期最具權威性的阿毘達磨論著之一。玄奘譯本共二百卷，保存了印度佛教鼎盛時期的思想精華，對漢傳佛教教理研究影響深遠，是理解說一切有部哲學體系的核心文獻，在佛教思想史上佔有重要地位。"
url: "https://rushiwowen.co/en/r/cm9to8l4104mmhj0vjzlkmgws"
---

## 阿毘達磨大毘婆沙論卷第一百九十六

> Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra, Volume 196

五百大阿羅漢等造

> Compiled by Five Hundred Great Arhats

三藏法師玄奘奉　詔譯

> Tripitaka Master Xuanzang, by Imperial Command, Translated

### 見蘊第八中想納息第三之二

> Chapter 8: The Aggregates, Section 3: On Perception, Part Two

見相應受幾隨眠隨增乃至廣說。問何故作此論。答為止撥無世俗正見者意。顯實有世俗正見是修所斷及遍行隨眠之所隨增。又遮說有修所斷疑隨眠者意。顯疑隨眠唯見所斷。故作斯論。問如夜見物。杌耶人耶。此疑豈非修所斷耶。答此於彼事未了故疑。了時便斷非隨眠性。問此中何故但依見疑而作論。答彼作論者意欲爾故。乃至廣說。復次唯此二種互不相應而俱緣四諦。俱通遍行。俱緣有漏無漏。俱緣有為無為。於餘煩惱為勝。貪瞋慢雖互不相應。而不能通緣四諦。唯不遍行。但緣有漏。但緣有為無明雖緣四諦。亦是遍行通緣有為無為有漏無漏。而與一切煩惱相應皆非增勝。是故此中但依見疑而作論。見相應受幾隨眠隨增。答三界有漏緣及無漏緣見彼相應無明隨眠隨增此則總說。若別說者見相應受差別有五。謂見苦所斷乃至修所斷。此中見苦所斷見相應受見苦所斷一切。及見集所斷遍行隨眠隨增。見集所斷見相應受見集所斷。一切見苦所斷遍行隨眠隨增。見滅所斷見相應受。見滅所斷無漏緣見彼相應無明見滅所斷。一切有漏緣。及遍行隨眠隨增。見道所斷見相應受見道所斷無漏緣見彼相應無明見道所斷。一切有漏緣及遍行隨眠隨增。修所斷見相應受修所斷一切。及遍行隨眠隨增。此中隨增差別應作四句。或有隨眠於見相應受所緣故隨增非相應故。或有隨眠於見相應受相應故隨增非所緣故。或有隨眠於見相應受所緣故隨增亦相應故。或有隨眠於見相應受非所緣故隨增亦非相應故。初句者謂除有漏緣見彼相應無明。諸餘有漏緣隨眠。第二句者謂無漏緣見彼相應無明。第三句者謂。有漏緣見彼相應無明。第四句者謂除無漏緣見彼相應無明。諸餘無漏緣隨眠。

> Regarding the mental factors associated with views, how many latent defilements increase? And so on, as extensively explained. Question: Why is this discussion made? Answer: To counter those who deny the existence of conventional right view, showing that conventional right view truly exists, is to be eliminated through cultivation, and is subject to increase by pervasive latent defilements. Also, to refute those who claim that doubt as a latent defilement is to be eliminated through cultivation, demonstrating that doubt as a latent defilement is only to be eliminated through insight. Therefore, this discussion is made. Question: For example, when seeing something at night, is it a stump or a person? Isn't this doubt to be eliminated through cultivation? Answer: This doubt arises from not fully understanding the matter. Once understood, it ceases—it is not of the nature of a latent defilement. Question: Why here is the discussion based only on views and doubt? Answer: Because the compilers intended it so, and so on, as extensively explained. Furthermore, only these two—views and doubt—are mutually incompatible yet both pertain to the Four Noble Truths, both are pervasive, both relate to the conditioned and unconditioned, and both relate to the defiled and undefiled. They are more significant than other afflictions. Although greed, hatred, and conceit are mutually incompatible, they do not pertain to all Four Noble Truths, are not pervasive, relate only to the defiled, and only to the conditioned. Ignorance, though pertaining to the Four Noble Truths, is pervasive and relates to both the conditioned and unconditioned, the defiled and undefiled, yet it accompanies all afflictions and is not particularly dominant. Therefore, here the discussion is based only on views and doubt. Regarding the mental factors associated with views, how many latent defilements increase? Answer: For the three realms, latent defilements that are defiled-based and undefiled-based, along with the ignorance associated with those views, increase. This is stated in general. If explained in detail, the mental factors associated with views are differentiated into five types: those to be eliminated by insight into suffering, up to those to be eliminated through cultivation. Here, for mental factors associated with views to be eliminated by insight into suffering, all latent defilements to be eliminated by insight into suffering, along with pervasive latent defilements to be eliminated by insight into the origin, increase. For mental factors associated with views to be eliminated by insight into the origin, all latent defilements to be eliminated by insight into the origin, along with pervasive latent defilements to be eliminated by insight into suffering, increase. For mental factors associated with views to be eliminated by insight into cessation, the undefiled-based views to be eliminated by insight into cessation, along with the ignorance associated with them, all defiled-based latent defilements to be eliminated by insight into cessation, and pervasive latent defilements, increase. For mental factors associated with views to be eliminated by insight into the path, the undefiled-based views to be eliminated by insight into the path, along with the ignorance associated with them, all defiled-based latent defilements to be eliminated by insight into the path, and pervasive latent defilements, increase. For mental factors associated with views to be eliminated through cultivation, all latent defilements to be eliminated through cultivation, along with pervasive latent defilements, increase. Here, the distinctions in increase should be explained through four categories: 1. Some latent defilements increase in relation to the mental factors associated with views due to being their object, but not due to being associated. 2. Some latent defilements increase in relation to the mental factors associated with views due to being associated, but not due to being their object. 3. Some latent defilements increase in relation to the mental factors associated with views due to both being their object and being associated. 4. Some latent defilements increase in relation to the mental factors associated with views due to neither being their object nor being associated. The first category refers to all defiled-based latent defilements except the ignorance associated with defiled-based views. The second category refers to the ignorance associated with undefiled-based views. The third category refers to the ignorance associated with defiled-based views. The fourth category refers to all undefiled-based latent defilements except the ignorance associated with undefiled-based views.

見不相應受幾隨眠隨增。答除無漏緣見彼相應無明。餘隨眠隨增。此則總說。若別說者。見不相應。受差別有五。謂見苦所斷乃至修所斷。此中見苦所斷見不相應受。見苦所斷一切及見集所斷遍行隨眠隨增見集所斷見不相應受。見集所斷一切。及見苦所斷遍行隨眠隨增。見滅所斷見不相應受。除見滅所斷邪見彼相應無明諸餘見滅所斷及遍行隨眠隨增。見道所斷見不相應受。除見道所斷邪見彼相應無明。諸餘見道所斷。及遍行隨眠隨增。修所斷見不相應受。修所斷一切及遍行隨眠隨增。此中隨增差別亦作四句。或有隨眠於見不相應受。所緣故隨增非相應故。乃至廣作四句。第一句者謂有漏緣見彼相應無明。第二句者謂除無漏緣見彼相應無明。諸餘無漏緣隨眠。第三句者謂除有漏緣見彼相應無明。諸餘有漏緣隨眠。第四句者謂無漏緣見彼相應無明。

> How many latent afflictions increase in a feeling that is not associated with a wrong view? Answer: All latent afflictions increase, except for the ignorance associated with a wrong view that takes the unconditioned as its object. This is the general explanation. If explained in detail, feelings not associated with a wrong view can be divided into five categories: those cut off by insight into suffering, up to those cut off by cultivation. Among these: - For a feeling not associated with a wrong view that is cut off by insight into suffering, all latent afflictions cut off by insight into suffering increase, as well as the pervasive latent afflictions cut off by insight into the origin. - For a feeling not associated with a wrong view that is cut off by insight into the origin, all latent afflictions cut off by insight into the origin increase, as well as the pervasive latent afflictions cut off by insight into suffering. - For a feeling not associated with a wrong view that is cut off by insight into cessation, all latent afflictions cut off by insight into cessation increase, except for the wrong view taking cessation as its object and the ignorance associated with it, as well as the pervasive latent afflictions. - For a feeling not associated with a wrong view that is cut off by insight into the path, all latent afflictions cut off by insight into the path increase, except for the wrong view taking the path as its object and the ignorance associated with it, as well as the pervasive latent afflictions. - For a feeling not associated with a wrong view that is cut off by cultivation, all latent afflictions cut off by cultivation increase, as well as the pervasive latent afflictions. Here, the distinctions in how latent afflictions increase can also be expressed in four propositions, and so on, elaborating fully into four propositions: 1. The first proposition: Latent afflictions that increase due to taking the feeling as their object, but not due to being associated with it. 2. The second proposition: All latent afflictions that take the unconditioned as their object, except for the ignorance associated with a wrong view that takes the unconditioned as its object. 3. The third proposition: All latent afflictions that take conditioned phenomena as their object, except for the ignorance associated with a wrong view that takes conditioned phenomena as its object. 4. The fourth proposition: The ignorance associated with a wrong view that takes the unconditioned as its object.

疑相應受幾隨眠隨增。答三界見所斷有漏緣。及無漏緣疑彼相應無明隨眠隨增。此則總說。若別說者疑相應受差別有四。謂見苦集滅道所斷。此中見苦所斷見集所斷如前說。見滅所斷疑相應受。見滅所斷疑彼相應無明見滅所斷一切有漏緣。及遍行隨眠隨增。見道所斷疑相應受。見道所斷疑彼相應無明。見道所斷一切有漏緣。及遍行隨眠隨增。此中隨增差別亦作四句。或有隨眠。於疑相應受。所緣故隨增非相應故。乃至廣作四句。第一句者謂除有漏緣疑彼相應無明。諸餘見所斷有漏緣隨眠。第二句者謂無漏緣疑彼相應無明。第三句者謂有漏緣疑彼相應無明。第四句者謂除無漏緣疑彼相應無明。諸餘無漏緣隨眠。

> \*\*Question:\*\* How many latent defilements increase in relation to a feeling that is associated with doubt? \*\*Answer:\*\* In general, the latent defilements that increase in relation to a feeling associated with doubt are: - All doubt-based defilements that are to be abandoned by seeing, which have a conditioned object (i.e., are rooted in the conditioned world), across the three realms (desire, form, and formless realms). - And the ignorance that is associated with those doubts, whether its object is conditioned or unconditioned. Now, to explain in detail: Feelings associated with doubt can be divided into four types, based on which of the Four Noble Truths the doubt pertains to: 1. Doubt regarding the Truth of Suffering (to be abandoned by seeing suffering). 2. Doubt regarding the Truth of the Origin of Suffering (to be abandoned by seeing the origin). 3. Doubt regarding the Truth of Cessation (to be abandoned by seeing cessation). 4. Doubt regarding the Truth of the Path (to be abandoned by seeing the path). For feelings associated with doubt regarding \*\*Suffering\*\* or the \*\*Origin\*\*, the increasing defilements are as stated in the general answer above. For feelings associated with doubt regarding \*\*Cessation\*\* (to be abandoned by seeing cessation), the increasing defilements are: - The doubt itself (regarding cessation). - The ignorance associated with that doubt. - All defilements to be abandoned by seeing cessation that have a conditioned object. - And all universally pervasive defilements. For feelings associated with doubt regarding the \*\*Path\*\* (to be abandoned by seeing the path), the increasing defilements are: - The doubt itself (regarding the path). - The ignorance associated with that doubt. - All defilements to be abandoned by seeing the path that have a conditioned object. - And all universally pervasive defilements. Furthermore, the specific ways these defilements increase can be analyzed through \*\*four distinct cases\*\*: 1. \*\*Case One:\*\* Defilements that increase \*\*only due to being the object\*\* of the feeling, but \*\*not due to being associated\*\* with it. \* This includes all defilements to be abandoned by seeing that have a conditioned object, \*\*except\*\* for the ignorance associated with doubt that has a conditioned object. 2. \*\*Case Two:\*\* Defilements that increase \*\*only due to being associated\*\* with the feeling, but \*\*not due to being its object\*\*. \* This refers specifically to the ignorance associated with doubt that has an \*unconditioned\* object (i.e., doubt about Nirvana or the Path). 3. \*\*Case Three:\*\* Defilements that increase \*\*both due to being the object and due to being associated\*\* with the feeling. \* This refers specifically to the ignorance associated with doubt that has a \*conditioned\* object. 4. \*\*Case Four:\*\* Defilements that increase \*\*neither due to being the object nor due to being associated\*\* with the feeling. \* This includes all defilements to be abandoned by seeing that have an unconditioned object, \*\*except\*\* for the ignorance associated with doubt that has an unconditioned object (which was already covered in Case Two).

疑不相應受幾隨眠隨增。答除無漏緣疑彼相應無明。餘隨眠隨增。此則總說。若別說者疑不相應受差別有五。謂見苦所斷乃至修所斷。此中見苦所斷見集所斷如前說。見滅所斷疑不相應受。除見滅所斷疑彼相應無明。諸餘見滅所斷。及遍行隨眠隨增。見道所斷疑不相應受。除見道所斷疑彼相應無明。諸餘見道所斷。及遍行隨眠隨增。修所斷疑不相應受。修所斷一切及遍行隨眠隨增。此中隨增差別亦作四句。或有隨眠於疑不相應受所緣故。隨增非相應故。乃至廣作四句。第一句者謂有漏緣疑彼相應無明。第二句者謂除無漏緣疑彼相應無明。諸餘無漏緣隨眠。第三句者謂除有漏緣疑彼相應無明。諸餘有漏緣隨眠。第四句者無漏緣疑彼相應無明。

> \*\*Question:\*\* How many latent defilements increase in association with a feeling that is not accompanied by doubt? \*\*Answer:\*\* All latent defilements increase, except for the ignorance that is directly associated with a doubt that has a pure object. This is the general statement. If explained in detail, there are five types of feelings not accompanied by doubt, corresponding to the five stages of abandonment: those to be abandoned by insight into suffering, up to those to be abandoned by cultivation. Among these: - For feelings not accompanied by doubt that are to be abandoned by insight into suffering and by insight into the origin, the explanation is as stated above. - For feelings not accompanied by doubt that are to be abandoned by insight into cessation: All latent defilements to be abandoned by insight into cessation increase, except for the ignorance directly associated with a doubt about cessation. Also, the universally pervasive latent defilements increase. - For feelings not accompanied by doubt that are to be abandoned by insight into the path: All latent defilements to be abandoned by insight into the path increase, except for the ignorance directly associated with a doubt about the path. Also, the universally pervasive latent defilements increase. - For feelings not accompanied by doubt that are to be abandoned by cultivation: All latent defilements to be abandoned by cultivation increase, along with the universally pervasive latent defilements. Here, the distinctions in how they increase can also be expressed in four propositions: 1. Some latent defilements increase due to being the object of the feeling not accompanied by doubt, but not due to being directly associated with it. 2. Some increase due to being directly associated, but not due to being the object. 3. Some increase due to both. 4. Some increase due to neither. To elaborate: - The first proposition refers to the ignorance directly associated with a doubt that has a contaminated object. - The second proposition refers to all latent defilements with a pure object, except for the ignorance directly associated with a doubt about a pure object. - The third proposition refers to all latent defilements with a contaminated object, except for the ignorance directly associated with a doubt about a contaminated object. - The fourth proposition refers to the ignorance directly associated with a doubt about a pure object.

因道緣起法幾界幾處幾蘊攝。答十八界十二處五蘊。此中因者六因。謂相應乃至能作。道者八支聖道。謂正見乃至正定。緣起者十二支緣起。謂無明乃至老死。此因道緣起具攝一切界處蘊法。問因及緣起可爾。道云何亦具攝耶。答此文應作是說。因及緣起十八界十二處五蘊攝。道三界二處五蘊攝。而不作是說者。當知此中總說因道緣起攝一切界處蘊非一一攝。復有說者。因道緣起法皆謂六因此皆因之差別名故。如施設論說。因道路等盡同一義。是以皆攝十八界等。有作是說。因謂一切有為法。如品類足說。因法云何。謂一切有為法由此具攝十八界等。道即是因此因與誰為道與所得果。由此亦攝十八界等。緣起亦是一切有為法。如品類足說。緣起法云何。謂一切有為法。由此亦攝十八界等。除眼觸等起想受心相應法及耳觸等起想受心不相應法。餘法幾界幾處幾蘊攝。答十八界十二處五蘊等起有二種。謂因及剎那。此中但說剎那等起。以說相應不相應故。問此所說中除何相應不相應法。取何餘法界處蘊攝耶。答此中除眼觸聚中非觸想受心。餘相應法及耳觸聚中生老住無常。取所餘法界處蘊攝。所以者何。此所說中若法是眼觸等起想受心相應。及耳觸等起想受心不相應者。是所除彼眼觸聚中觸雖與想受心相應。而非眼觸等起自體。於自體無等起義故。想雖眼觸等起及受心相應。而非想相應自體。於自體無相應義故。受心說亦爾。是故眼觸聚中觸想受心皆非所除。餘相應法眼觸等起及想受心相應故乃是所除。耳觸聚中觸非耳觸等起。亦非想受心不相應。想雖耳觸等起及想不相應。而與受心相應。受心說亦爾。餘心所法雖耳觸等起。而與想受心相應。是故耳觸聚中心心所法皆非所除。彼俱起生老住無常耳觸等起。及想受心不相應故乃是所除是名所除法。餘法云何。謂六觸身六想身六受身六識身。及耳鼻舌身意觸聚中餘相應行蘊。除耳觸聚中生老住無常。餘不相應行蘊一切色無為。如是餘法十八界十二處五蘊攝。乃至除身觸等起想受心相應法。及意觸等起想受心不相應法。餘法幾界幾處幾蘊攝。答十八界十二處五蘊。此中展轉相望所除所取准前應廣釋。有餘於此作差別說。謂除眼觸等起想受心不相應法。及耳觸等起想受心相應法。餘法十八界十二處五蘊攝乃至除身觸等起想受心不相應法。及意觸等起想受心相應法。餘法攝如前說復有於此作差別說。謂除眼觸等起想受心相應法。及耳觸等起想受心相應法。餘法攝如前說。乃至除身觸等起想受心相應法。及意觸等起想受心相應法餘法攝如前說。復有於此作差別說。謂除眼觸等起想受心不相應法。及耳觸等起想受心不相應法。餘法攝如前說。乃至除身觸等起想受心不相應法。及意觸等起想受心不相應法。餘法攝如前說。

> Regarding the categories of the factors, the path, and dependent arising: into how many sense spheres, bases, and aggregates are they included? Answer: They are included in the eighteen sense spheres, twelve bases, and five aggregates. Here, "factors" refers to the six causes: associated, and so on, up to the enabling cause. "Path" refers to the Noble Eightfold Path: right view, and so on, up to right concentration. "Dependent arising" refers to the twelve links of dependent arising: ignorance, and so on, up to old age and death. These factors, path, and dependent arising collectively encompass all phenomena categorized under the sense spheres, bases, and aggregates. Question: The factors and dependent arising can be understood this way, but how can the path also encompass them all? Answer: This passage should be explained as follows: The factors and dependent arising are included in the eighteen sense spheres, twelve bases, and five aggregates. The path is included in three sense spheres, two bases, and five aggregates. However, since it is not stated this way, it should be understood that here, the factors, path, and dependent arising are collectively said to encompass all sense spheres, bases, and aggregates, not that each individually does so. Another explanation: The phenomena of factors, path, and dependent arising all refer to the six causes, as these are all different names for causes. As stated in the \*Prajñaptiśāstra\*, "factor," "path," and so forth ultimately share the same meaning. Therefore, they are all included in the eighteen sense spheres, and so on. Yet another explanation: "Factors" refer to all conditioned phenomena. As stated in the \*Prakaraṇapāda\*, "What are factors? They are all conditioned phenomena." Thus, they encompass the eighteen sense spheres, and so on. The path is also a factor. For whom is this factor a path? For the fruit to be attained. Therefore, it also encompasses the eighteen sense spheres, and so on. Dependent arising is also all conditioned phenomena. As stated in the \*Prakaraṇapāda\*, "What is dependent arising? It is all conditioned phenomena." Thus, it also encompasses the eighteen sense spheres, and so on. \*\*\* Excluding the mental factors associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from eye-contact, and the mental factors not associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from ear-contact, into how many sense spheres, bases, and aggregates are the remaining phenomena included? Answer: They are included in the eighteen sense spheres, twelve bases, and five aggregates. "Arise" has two kinds: causal arising and momentary arising. Here, only momentary arising is discussed, as it pertains to associated and non-associated factors. Question: In this discussion, which associated and non-associated phenomena are excluded, and which remaining phenomena are included in the sense spheres, bases, and aggregates? Answer: Here, from the collection of eye-contact, excluding those that are not contact, perception, feeling, or mind, but are associated factors; and from the collection of ear-contact, excluding arising, aging, abiding, and impermanence; the remaining phenomena are included in the sense spheres, bases, and aggregates. Why? In this discussion, if a phenomenon is associated with perception, feeling, and mind arising from eye-contact, or is not associated with perception, feeling, and mind arising from ear-contact, it is excluded. However, contact within the collection of eye-contact, though associated with perception, feeling, and mind, is not itself arisen from eye-contact, as there is no notion of arising from itself. Perception, though arisen from eye-contact and associated with feeling and mind, is not associated with itself, as there is no notion of association with itself. The same applies to feeling and mind. Therefore, contact, perception, feeling, and mind within the collection of eye-contact are not excluded. The other associated factors, being arisen from eye-contact and associated with perception, feeling, and mind, are what is excluded. Within the collection of ear-contact, contact is not arisen from ear-contact, nor is it not associated with perception, feeling, and mind. Perception, though arisen from ear-contact and not associated with itself, is associated with feeling and mind. The same applies to feeling and mind. The other mental factors, though arisen from ear-contact, are associated with perception, feeling, and mind. Therefore, mind and mental factors within the collection of ear-contact are not excluded. The co-arising factors of arising, aging, abiding, and impermanence within ear-contact, being arisen from ear-contact and not associated with perception, feeling, and mind, are what is excluded. These are the excluded phenomena. What are the remaining phenomena? They are the six types of contact, six types of perception, six types of feeling, six types of consciousness, and the remaining associated formations within the collections of ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-, and mind-contact, excluding the arising, aging, abiding, and impermanence within the collection of ear-contact; the remaining non-associated formations; all material phenomena; and the unconditioned. Such remaining phenomena are included in the eighteen sense spheres, twelve bases, and five aggregates. \*\*\* And so on, up to: Excluding the mental factors associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from body-contact, and the mental factors not associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from mind-contact, into how many sense spheres, bases, and aggregates are the remaining phenomena included? Answer: They are included in the eighteen sense spheres, twelve bases, and five aggregates. Here, the exclusions and inclusions should be explained in detail by mutual comparison, as done previously. Some offer a different interpretation here: Excluding the mental factors not associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from eye-contact, and the mental factors associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from ear-contact, the remaining phenomena are included in the eighteen sense spheres, twelve bases, and five aggregates. And so on, up to: Excluding the mental factors not associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from body-contact, and the mental factors associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from mind-contact, the inclusion of the remaining phenomena is as stated before. Others offer a different interpretation here: Excluding the mental factors associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from eye-contact, and the mental factors associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from ear-contact, the inclusion of the remaining phenomena is as stated before. And so on, up to: Excluding the mental factors associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from body-contact, and the mental factors associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from mind-contact, the inclusion of the remaining phenomena is as stated before. Still others offer a different interpretation here: Excluding the mental factors not associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from eye-contact, and the mental factors not associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from ear-contact, the inclusion of the remaining phenomena is as stated before. And so on, up to: Excluding the mental factors not associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from body-contact, and the mental factors not associated with perception, feeling, and mind that arise from mind-contact, the inclusion of the remaining phenomena is as stated before.