Dhammapada (南傳法句經)

The *Dharmapada* is a collection of verses drawn from the Buddha's teachings. The *Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom* (Volume 33) states that it is a compilation of essential verses by the Buddha's disciples, and in the twelvefold division of the teachings, it belongs to the category of *Udana* (inspired utterances). (See *Abhidharmakosha*, Chapter 1) The Song Dynasty translation of the Dharmapada is titled *Dharma Collection Verses*, which is the meaning of *Dharma-Udana*.

The Sarvāstivāda tradition records: "After the Buddha's passing, the great elder Dharmatrata, through continuous listening and learning, compiled and arranged these verses, establishing chapter titles: gathering verses on impermanence into the Impermanence Chapter, and so on, up to verses on brahmins gathered into the Brahmin Chapter." (Abhidharma Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra, Volume 1) This refers to the Dharmapada. However, according to the preface to the Dharmapada translated by Zhi Qian of Wu (circa 230 CE): "Monks of the five schools each selected and copied verses of four or six lines from the scriptures, organized them by meaning, and arranged them into chapters... Hence the name Dharmapada." Dharmatrata lived in the first century BCE and was likely a compiler or re-arranger. From the fact that monks of the five schools each compiled their own versions of the Dharmapada, it seems that a collection of verses called the Dharmapada existed first. Later, as the schools diverged, each tradition added to or rearranged its own version. But since all were gathered from the Buddha's teachings, this re-editing did not diminish their value.

The Dhammapada, or "Path of Truth," can also be translated as "Traces of the Teaching." The "Teaching" (Dharma) refers to what Buddhist disciples practice and realize. "Traces" means footprints or marks. By following these footprints, one can discover where they lead. Expanding on this idea, when many "terms" are gathered together, they can fully express a meaning—this is called a "verse" (such as the Chinese concept of a "trap" or "snare" for catching meaning). The Buddha's teachings are none other than "teachings on the Dharma and explanations of its meaning." Collecting the essential verses that explain both the teaching and its meaning gives us the "Dhammapada" and the "Arthapada." The counterpart to the Dhammapada, the "meaning of the verses," appears in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (sections 39 and 54). This aligns with the "Arthapada Sutra" in old Chinese translations. In other schools, it is known as the "Arthavarga" (Chapter on Meaning). During the Buddha's time, Sona Kotikarna recited the Arthavarga before the Buddha. The ancient Samyukta Agama mentions "reciting the Dhammapada." Such collections of essential teachings already existed during the Buddha's lifetime, making them the oldest written Buddhist scriptures. Zhi Qian's preface says: "In India, beginners who did not study the Dhammapada were considered to have strayed from proper order. This text is the stepping stone for newcomers and the hidden treasure for advanced practitioners." Its meaning is profound and essential, and its verses are easy to recite. Even today, in Sri Lanka and elsewhere, the Dhammapada remains the introductory text for beginners. In truth, it is not only a "stepping stone for newcomers" but also a "hidden treasure for advanced practitioners."

In his preface to the *Dhammapada* verses, Zhi Qian states: "There are several versions of the *Dhammapada*: one with nine hundred verses, one with seven hundred, and one with five hundred." Before Zhi Qian's time, China already had an initial translation of the *Dhammapada* in a seven-hundred-verse edition, as noted: "In recent times, Master Ge transmitted a version of seven hundred verses." However, in the history of translation in China, no trace of this can be found. When Vighna arrived in Wuchang in the third year of Huangwu (224 CE), Zhi Qian received the *Dhammapada* verses from him—this was the second translation, consisting of five hundred verses. Yet, "what could not be understood in translation was omitted and not transmitted, so there were gaps." Later, Zhi Qian revised the text again under the guidance of Zhu Jiang (also referred to as Zhu Lü or Zhu Chi) Yan. The version transmitted by Zhu Jiang Yan contained thirteen additional chapters, totaling thirty-nine chapters and seven hundred fifty-two verses—this is the extant Wu translation of the *Dhammapada*. It is likely similar to Master Ge's seven-hundred-verse edition, marking this as the third translation. Upon investigation, Vighna's five-hundred-verse version roughly corresponds to the *Dhammapada* as transmitted in Sri Lanka (the Tambapaṇṇiya school). For example, among the thirty-nine chapters of the extant Wu version:

The Ceylonese transmission happens to lack thirteen chapters (totaling 257 verses). The version transmitted by Vighna, with twenty-six chapters and 495 verses, though not perfectly matching the Ceylonese version (nineteen chapters correspond in order), broadly agrees with it. At minimum, this represents the mainland Vibhajyavāda tradition (the Tāmraśāṭīya, or copper-sheet school, also belongs to this school), such as the Mahīśāsaka or Dharmaguptaka lineages, and it is close to the Tāmraśāṭīya. By the end of Emperor Hui of the Western Jin dynasty (around 305 CE), Faju and Fali translated the four-volume *Scriptural Commentary on the Dhammapada*. This is an explanation of the Dhammapada—narrative contexts and verse meanings. Its chapter headings match Zhu Jiangyan's version, but it is only a partial rendition (most Dhammapada verses follow older translations). During the fifth and sixth years of the Qinchū era in the Yao Qin dynasty (398–399 CE), Saṃghabhata and Fo Nian translated the thirty-volume *Chu Yao* (where "Chu Yao" is a semantic rendering of "appadāna" or parable). The Dhammapada verses explained therein, "gathered in about a thousand verses, arranged into thirty-three chapters" (per the preface). From the first chapter on impermanence to the thirty-third on Brahmins, this is the collection attributed to Dharmatrāta in the Sarvāstivāda tradition. During the reign of Emperor Taizong of the Song dynasty (around 990 CE), Tian Xizai translated the four-volume *Collected Essential Verses*, matching the thirty-three chapters and near-thousand-verse count, extensively quoting the original verses from the Qin translation. In terms of Dhammapada renderings, this is the fourth and fifth translation. The nine-hundred-verse version attributed to Zhi Qian likely refers to this Sarvāstivāda compilation. For the Pali version preserved in the Tāmraśāṭīya tradition, Master Fafang, while in Ceylon, produced a translation draft. Unfortunately, he passed away before it could be carefully revised and organized! Recently, Master Liaocan translated it into Chinese, referencing Master Fang's old draft but only citing a few verses, with the rest retranslated anew. In the history of Dhammapada translations in our country, this is the sixth translation.

I remember, in the late spring of thirty-five years ago, I parted ways with Master Liao in Chongqing—he went to Ceylon for study while I returned to Zhejiang. Six years have passed! Now the translation work has begun, and this is truly a cause for joy and comfort! I hope the sacred Pali texts will continue to be translated without interruption! A letter from Ceylon requests that I write a preface. But since I am not versed in Pali scriptures, where would I even begin? Therefore, I will briefly recount the translation history of the Dhammapada in lieu of a preface.

I believe that all Buddhist teachings share a single origin: the living example and spoken words of the Buddha himself. As these teachings spread over time, different traditions emerged—some emphasized the collected meaning of passages, others explored the deeper implications of subtle points; some leaned conservative, preferring to omit rather than risk error, while others were progressive, adapting without fixed limits; some became narrow and closed, others became diluted and impure. Thus, countless schools arose according to time and place.

Every form of Buddhism that exists today, every sacred text, bears the coloring of some particular school. Modern students of Buddhism should embrace all traditions, studying them comparatively to understand both their common ground and their differences. Through tracing the process of development and change, we can discern where doctrines advanced, stagnated, or declined. Only then can we understand the Buddha's intent more completely and precisely, and only then can we truly respond to this impermanent, ever-shifting world.

If we cling to one tradition as the only truth—claiming ourselves to be "original" or "ultimate," praising ourselves while condemning others—that will cast a terrible shadow over the future of world Buddhism.

All Buddhist teachings share the same source but branch into different streams. No school or text can be absolutely regarded as the sole authentic word of the Buddha—they must be understood through comparison. The Dhammapada offers a clear example. The newly translated first verse reads, "Like the wheel follows the animal's foot," while the older version reads, "The cart crushes the rut." *Pada* can mean "foot," so the new translation explains it as the wheel following the beast that pulls the cart. But it can also mean "trace" or "track"—a "rut" being the wheel's track—so the older version explains it as the wheel pressing down over the rut. These different interpretations give rise to different stories behind the verse. This is a case where the same source language yields different meanings.