---
title: "四部律并論要用抄 · 2 四部律及論明受戒法"
description: "四部律并論要用抄是中国唐代高僧道宣律师所编纂的一部律学著作。道宣律师是律宗南山宗的创始人，该书成于唐代佛教律学鼎盛时期。其主要内容是对佛教四部广律即十诵律、四分律、僧祇律、五分律的精要摘抄和系统整理，并附以相关论释。该抄本以简明扼要的方式呈现了佛教戒律的核心内容，为僧团持戒修行提供了重要依据。在佛教史上，此书具有承前启后的地位，不仅继承了前代律学传统，更推动了汉传佛教律学体系的发展完善，是研究中国佛教戒律思想不可或缺的重要文献。"
url: "https://rushiwowen.co/en/r/cmcwshzmn1mcwie04j6g8cmkw"
---

### 四部律及論明受戒法第二

> Four-Part Vinaya and Commentaries on Precept Rituals, Part 2

十誦明十種受戒法。一自然得戒。謂佛無師自悟。二自性得戒。謂大迦葉。三見諦得戒。謂居隣等五比丘聞說四諦尋發具足。四善來得戒。謂耶舍等及如來一代善來所度。何以故。佛是法王自與受戒。此是等最後身。比丘終不學地無常故。五三語得戒。謂未制羯磨前。謂羅漢所度者但為受三歸即得具足戒。六問答得戒。亦名論義。謂須陀耶沙彌年始七歲。佛問其義。一一答。佛稱可聖心勅諸比丘與受具足。從問答得戒。因勅比丘故亦名勅聽得戒。七者八敬得戒。亦名八重。亦名尊師法。亦名八不可過法。謂大愛道及五百釋女求佛出家。佛遣阿難授其八敬聽之出家。從八敬為名。故稱八敬得戒五分律云愛道從阿難聞八法已歡喜頂受。又語阿難。為我白佛。於八法中更乞願。願聽比丘尼隨次大小禮比丘。云何百歲尼禮新受戒比丘。佛告阿難。若我聽比丘尼隨次大小禮比丘者。無有是處。阿難聞已還報。愛道又言。頂受尊敬。佛言。大愛道歡喜奉行。八法聽即名出家受具足戒。復白阿難。是五百釋女今當云何。更為我白佛。佛言。即聽大愛道為作和上。在比丘十眾中白四羯磨聽。一時羯磨三人不得至四。此則愛道一人得名八敬受戒。五百釋女即羯磨受戒。十誦亦如是。若如依四分。五百釋女亦皆八敬得戒。八遣使受戒。謂半迦尸尼顏容端政。若出伽藍即有壞行留難。聖者開聽差一比丘尼。為使往大僧中代其乞戒。故名遣使受戒。九羯磨受戒。謂十僧作法十。邊地持律五人受大戒。以邊地佛法創行。僧徒希尠。集之至難故。大聖開聽五人受戒。又四分云。得阿羅漢者。即名出家受具足戒。此人得最上法。名為上法受戒。故摩夷論云。時有年不滿二十。而受生疑問佛。佛言。聽教數胎中月及潤月猶不滿。佛言。此人得阿羅漢不。答言。得。佛言。此人名為上受具戒。又尼眾中女人曾出適年十二聽受大戒。通此合有十二種受戒。此十二種中自然得戒。唯佛一人自誓得戒。唯大迦葉一人見諦得戒。局在居隣。五人善來得戒。通及僧尼佛。佛在時有佛滅後更無善來受戒法。三語得戒。居在大僧。未立羯磨已前聽。立羯磨已後不聽問答得戒。若今末法中有須陀耶沙彌。亦聽受戒八敬得戒。唯居尼眾愛道一人不通。餘者遣使得戒。唯在尼眾半迦尸尼。若今末代有如是比丘。聽小小顏容不得也。邊地五人得戒者。今邊方有佛法。初行處皆悉開聽曾嫁十二居在尼眾上法受戒通彼僧尼。今若有得阿難漢者。亦即得名戒。唯羯磨一法教通凡聖被及。僧尼該羅現未須知作法。成以不成故。依諸部廣明　問。羯磨受戒具足幾緣得名如法　答。依僧祇律具六緣得成如法。何者為六。一者受戒人年滿二十三衣鉢具。二者受戒人身無十三遮難。三者要結果成就。四者界內僧盡集。無其別眾。五者羯磨稱文無有增減。六者十僧滿足如法清淨。備此六緣得名如法。六中少一受戒不成　問。年云何滿二十　答。僧祇云。要年滿二十歲。滿二十雨。若年滿二十。不滿二十雨不得戒。但使雨滿得受戒。若冬時生夏安居竟受戒。是名不滿二十。若春時生安居竟受戒。是名滿二十。前安居竟時生還前安居竟受戒。後安居時後安居竟受戒。是名滿二十。四分家十二月為一歲。滿二十人取本生月。皆名滿二十得具足戒。僧祇家逕二十雨滿得具足戒。如臘月生者至滿二十逕十八雨。故名不滿。如是等要滿二十夏後方得受戒。然受戒事重。是出家根本。若本法不成即非比丘。與白依無別。受人信施及以禮拜。皆名為盜。得罪無量。若人定知年小受戒者。雖逕百年猶名沙彌。不應受大比丘禮敬及受信施。當更受戒　問。此受戒已來備逕布薩羯磨。何故更得受戒　答。此作受大戒。意聽羯磨布薩。非盜心聽故　四分聽更受戒　答。祇云。若人自不知年幾當問父母親里。若復不知當看生年板。若無是者當觀其顏狀手足成就。以不若如是不知當問。何王何歲國土豐儉𣵡澇等。非謂一切如是特有難知者。如是一一尋究。若實不知滿二十。雖手足成就亦不得戒也　問。四分云。年不滿二十。聽數胎中月潤月等。此後云何　答。有人初受戒時。意謂年滿二十。受戒竟方知不滿。懷疑問佛。佛言。聽數胎中月潤月。若數一切十四日說戒。以滿年數無犯。此是大聖開令得戒。依此間國法五年再潤　十誦云。洴沙王六年一潤。五分五年一潤。未知依何者是定　第二身無遮難者何故須問也　答。十三難人為三彰所牽與聖道隔絕。障不發戒名為難。是故須問　又問。十三難者名義云何　答。一邊罪難。此人曾受大戒。犯波羅夷為僧滅擯。後自還復更出家。蠲在眾外。名邊障不發戒。名難也。二污淨行尼難。從出家已來不犯婬者。名為淨行。若白衣時污犯。此人故名為難。三賊心受戒難。此人無師自剃髮。著袈裟不受戒。而共他布薩羯磨竊盜佛法。故名賊心。若下三眾盜聽說戒羯磨。詐同僧事亦犯也。四破內外道難。此人先是外道來出家。受戒後不捨戒。還入外道。邪見心重。自然失戒。若更欲於佛法求出家受戒者名難也。五黃門難。此人性多煩惱。闕於持戒。煩惱障重不發大戒。故名為難也。六殺父難。七殺母難。白衣殺父或殺母。違恩處深障。不發戒。八殺阿羅漢難。白衣時殺比丘。臨命終時顏色不變。九破僧難。妄說邪法。或亂群情。同界之內別行法事。斷壞佛法。知而故為。故名為難。十惡心出佛身血難。此人方便欲殺佛。而不能斷命。侵損聖體。違理處深。得重逆罪。今時末世燒壞精舍形像舍利。若見瑞相亦得逆罪。不得受戒。故名為難。十一非人難。若鬼若天變作人形欲受大戒者。名為非人難。十二畜生難。若龍若狐化為人形。不得與受戒。十三二根難。此人身具有男女二根。於僧尼二眾無安置處。故名為難。此十三人中初四及五逆業障攝。黃門一人煩惱障攝。後三人報障攝。三障所羈一形之中不可改易。未出家莫度已出家當滅擯。廣解如論中所說也　問曰。不問十三難。為作戒不　答。四分云。自制已後不得戒　又問。本為防難故。今實無者何須問也　答。雖為難故問。若實有難問以不問俱不得戒。若實無難問便得戒。不問不得戒　第三明結界成以不成後結界法中當說　第四界內僧盡集。不來者與欲眾僧和合無其別眾也　第五羯磨稱文者。若作白四羯磨。而白五白三白二白一皆不成也　第六僧數滿者。要清淨大比丘十人。若過十人名為眾。滿減則不成　問。犯重人及十三難人作和上。為得戒不　答。四分云。此不足僧數不得戒也。自餘證人犯重。但使證人多則得戒。少則不得戒　四分云。時有從不持戒和上受戒。後生疑問佛。佛問。汝知和上持戒不。答言。不知。佛言。得。名受具戒。復有從不持戒和上受戒。佛言。汝知和上不持不。答言。知。汝知不應從如是人受具戒。答言。不知。佛言。此得名受具戒。又後有主疑問佛。佛言。汝知和上破戒不。答言。知。汝知不應從破戒人受戒不。答言。知。佛言。汝知從破戒人受戒不得戒不。答言。不知。佛言。得名受具戒　第四人三句俱知者。不名受具足戒問。無和上得受戒不。佛言。不得。十誦律云。優婆離問。無和上得受具戒不。佛言。得名受具戒。羯磨人及眾僧有罪。四分云。時有和上九歲授人具戒。不知成受戒不。佛言。成受戒。眾僧有罪　問。無衣鉢得受戒不。四分云。無衣鉢不得受戒　又問。借衣鉢得受戒不。五分云。借衣鉢者應教衣主捨。得受戒。毘尼毘婆沙論云。無衣鉢得戒不。答言。得。若爾何須衣鉢。答言。一為威儀故。二為生前人善故。二為標異相故。須衣鉢具也。又僧祇云。以和上足十人數。不名受具戒。又不自稱字。不稱和上字。不乞戒。皆不名受具戒。與人作和上應具十德。一持戒。二多聞阿毘曇。三多聞毘尼。四學戒。五學定。六學慧。七學自出罪使人出罪。八能自看病。九若弟子有梵行難。能自送使人送脫難。十滿十臘出僧祇律依止阿闍梨應具十德。一具持二百五十戒。二多聞。三能教授弟子阿毘曇。四能教授弟子毘尼。五能教弟子捨惡善見。六知波羅提木叉戒。七知說波羅提木叉戒。八知作布薩。九知作布薩羯磨。十滿十臘出四分。增十中和上十德亦同也威儀羯磨二種闍梨應具五德。一知增上威儀是淨身口戒。亦名律儀戒二知增上淨行名淨心戒。亦名定共戒三知增上波羅提木叉戒是淨惠戒。亦名道共戒。出世法過於世法故言增上也四知自羯磨此一句善眾法文辭成就。言彰辨利五滿五臘五年學戒。自行既成。堪與人作師也臨檀證人應具五德。一善知有難法。二善知無難法。三善知作白法。四善知作羯磨。五戒行清淨。具此五德能舉眾法表證威儀有五法不得無依止。一不能勤修威儀戒二不能增淨行。三不能增波羅提木叉戒。四若惡見不能捨而住善見。五不滿五夏出四分律十誦云。五歲比丘五法成就。聽不受依止而住。一知犯。二知不犯。三知輕。四知重。五誦波羅提木叉利。若無此五法。雖復多歲盡形依止他住　問。大比丘得依止小比丘住不　答曰。得。除禮拜餘一切如弟子法。應作有五法失依止。一死師亡二去。若師遙宿行。或弟子決意出界外。三休道若師除戒四不與依止師捨教誡五還在和上目下住。若和上攝受者。阿闍梨不應令請教誡。十誦律制依止法。乃至不得求水澡漱。先求依止後因不諳相。委過起故開聽。乃至共宿聽無依止住過。是則不聽。僧祇律云。優波離有二沙彌。欲一時羯磨受戒。以事白佛。佛言。同和上者聽。僧祇律有四種師。一無法無食聽不須問而去二無法有衣食須問已去三無衣食有法雖苦應住四有法有衣食是為樂住前二種師。無法應懺謝已而去。後二種師有法者。盡形不得離師有五失。弟子應懺謝已而去一應語和上言。我如法和上不知。二我不如法和上不知。三我犯戒捨不教呵。四若犯亦不知。五若犯已懺悔。亦不如既出家訓成之益。是以請求在外。諮稟修學勝法受戒隨根雖有多種。總歸大要唯作以無作。初對師前作心受戒。運動身口造成此法。名為作戒。一得戒已壞之。在心不復營為。故名無作戒。是出世法作心受之。便得作心捨之。便失善業。不爾必能感報。不同戒法。有捨義。四分云。時有不與沙彌戒便與受具戒。不知成不。佛言。得具足。眾僧有犯。毘尼母論云。時有從破戒師受戒。生疑問佛。佛言。汝先知汝和上從師邊受戒得不。答言。不知。佛言。得名受戒問。大僧得與尼受六法及十戒不。答。大僧唯得與尼作三種羯磨。一受。二摩那埵。三出罪。自餘法事諸律無文。設令作者羯磨不成。僧尼得罪　問。何故大尼取比丘為師。式叉沙彌尼不取也　答。女無獨志。是故聖制。受大戒要取大僧作師。或叉摩那尼及沙彌尼。初始出家年幼志弱。但依大尼為師。諮承學戒。不須大僧　問。受六法時更須請和上不答。不須。何以然。式叉摩那但於十戒中增學其六八。未是易位故不須請。又四部律皆言。眼見耳不聞處。若對面作羯磨者。不成受六法得罪　問。有人言。大比丘尼得禮沙彌。是如法不　答。此人不解律相。妄作是說。何以故。四分律房舍揵度中。佛自為諸比丘制於敬法。小沙彌應禮大沙彌尼。何況大比丘尼而不禮也。何者不應禮十三難人。三舉人滅擯人非法語人。如是等人不應禮。禮者彼此俱得罪耳　次明捨戒法。然戒是淨法應請昇累表。是故僧尼五眾護持佛戒。寧死不犯。若故犯者不如本不出家也。何以故。自壞道法。污辱師僧。穢亂三寶。欺負四思。不消信施益。罪尤多。若人煩惱迫心。樂道情薄。苟欲為惡不能遮止者。佛言。聽捨戒還家。不得倚傍佛法。違犯清禁也。若欲捨戒者。當向一大比丘。故䠒跪合掌。作如是言。大德一心念。我比丘某甲。今捨大還作白衣。願大德境。我是白衣。如是三說。若欲留五戒者。當言。還作優婆塞。若欲留十戒。當言。還作沙彌。願大德憶。我是沙彌。本從僧受得戒。今還應如法還僧。僧便證知。此推之不得對餘人而捨也若比丘尼還尼捨若捨戒已還樂佛法出家者。還聽出家。尼則不聽。何以故。十誦律中。因白衣見比丘尼還俗便譏呵言。此比丘尼先曾敬我法。中問為我所敬。今復敬我。無有正定。諸比丘以是事白佛。佛言。若比丘尼一返戒。不復聽出家受大戒。

> The Ten Recitations explain ten methods of receiving the precepts. First, spontaneously attained precepts—this refers to the Buddha, who awakened without a teacher. Second, inherently attained precepts—this refers to Mahākāśyapa. Third, precepts attained through seeing the truth—this refers to the five monks like Kaurṛṇṇya who, upon hearing the teaching on the Four Noble Truths, immediately attained full ordination. Fourth, precepts attained through the welcome—this refers to Yaśas and others, as well as all those welcomed by the Tathāgata in his lifetime. Why? Because the Buddha, as the King of Dharma, personally administered the precepts. These were the final lifetimes of such beings; a monk on the learning path could not be exempt from impermanence. Fifth, precepts attained through the three declarations—this refers to the period before the formal karmavācana was established, when those ordained by arhats received full precepts merely by taking the three refuges. Sixth, precepts attained through questions and answers, also called discussion—this refers to the novice Sudāya, who was only seven years old. The Buddha asked him questions, and he answered each one correctly. The Buddha, approving his profound understanding, instructed the monks to confer full ordination upon him. Since he received the precepts through questions and answers, and because this occurred through the Buddha's instruction to the monks, it is also called precepts attained through the Buddha's command. Seventh, precepts attained through the eight reverences, also called the eight heavy rules, also called the respectful teacher's Dharma, also called the eight insurmountable rules—this refers to Mahāprajāpatī and the five hundred women of the Śākya clan who sought to ordain under the Buddha. The Buddha sent Ānanda to transmit the eight reverences to them, permitting their ordination through these eight rules. Hence it is named "precepts attained through the eight reverences." <note>The Fivefold Recitations says</note> that Mahāprajāpatī, having heard the eight rules from Ānanda, joyfully received them with utmost respect. She then said to Ānanda, "Please inform the Buddha for me, and request a further boon within these eight rules: let it be permitted that nuns pay respects to monks according to seniority. How could a hundred-year-old nun be required to bow to a newly ordained monk?" The Buddha told Ānanda, "If I permitted nuns to bow to monks according to seniority, that would be utterly wrong." Ānanda conveyed this response, and Mahāprajāpatī said, "I accept this with reverence and respect." The Buddha then declared that Mahāprajāpatī, rejoicing and complying with the eight rules, was thus granted the status of having left home and received full ordination. She further asked Ānanda, "What should be done now for these five hundred women of the Śākya clan? Please ask the Buddha on my behalf." The Buddha replied, "Let Mahāprajāpatī serve as the preceptor, and within an assembly of ten monks, administer the formal karmavācana by proclamation four times. Three may be ordained together at one session, but not four. Thus, Mahāprajāpatī alone received the precepts through the eight reverences, while the five hundred Śākya women received ordination through the karmavācana. The Ten Recitations also concur. However, according to the Fourfold Vinaya, all five hundred Śākya women likewise received the precepts through the eight reverences. Eighth, precepts attained through a messenger—this refers to the nun Saṅkāśi, whose beautiful appearance would have caused misconduct and obstruction had she gone to the monastery in person. The sage therefore allowed a nun to be sent as her messenger to the assembly of monks to request ordination on her behalf. Hence it is called precepts attained through a messenger. Ninth, precepts attained through formal karmavācana—this refers to the ten monks conducting the ceremony, while in frontier regions, five monks with Vinaya expertise confer the full precepts. Because the Dharma was newly established in the borderlands, monks were scarce and gathering them was extremely difficult, so the Sage permitted ordination with five monks. The Fourfold Vinaya also states that one who attains arhatship is thereby considered to have left home and received full precepts. Such a person receives the supreme Dharma, which is called "precepts attained through the supreme Dharma." Thus, the Mahīśāsaka Treatise says: at one time, a person under twenty years old raised doubts about his ordination and asked the Buddha. The Buddha said, "Recount the months in the womb and the intercalary months." Still not twenty, the person asked again. The Buddha said, "Has this person attained arhatship?" The reply was, "Yes." The Buddha then declared, "This person is called one who received the full precepts through the supreme method." Moreover, in the nuns' community, a woman who had been previously married and had turned twelve was permitted to receive the great precepts. Combining all these, there are twelve methods of receiving the precepts altogether. Among these twelve, spontaneous attainment of precepts applies to the Buddha alone; self-pledged attainment applies to Mahākāśyapa alone; attainment through seeing the truth is restricted to Kaurṛṇṇya and his four companions; attainment through the welcome extends to both monks and nuns during the Buddha's lifetime, but after his passing there is no such method; the three declarations were permitted among monks before the formal karmavācana was instituted, but not afterward; the question-and-answer method applies, so if in this degenerate age there is a novice like Sudāya, he too may be ordained; the eight reverences apply only to Mahāprajāpatī among the nuns and to no one else; the messenger method applies only to nuns like Saṅkāśi in that circumstance—if in this latter age such a nun appears, one of lesser beauty would not be permitted; the five-monk ordination in border regions applies wherever the Dharma is newly established and full assemblies are difficult to gather; the twelve-year-old previously married woman applies to the nuns' community; the supreme Dharma method applies to both monks and nuns—if one attains arhatship, one is thereby considered to have received the precepts; and the karmavācana method alone applies universally to both sages and ordinary beings, to monks and nuns alike, including present and future, requiring adherence to proper procedure for success or failure. Thus, the various traditions explain this in detail. Question: How many conditions must be fulfilled for ordination through karmavācana to be considered lawful? Answer: According to the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya, six conditions must be fulfilled for it to be lawful. What are the six? One: the candidate is fully twenty years old and possesses robes and bowl. Two: the candidate has none of the thirteen obstructions. Three: the boundary (sīmā) must be properly established. Four: all monks within the boundary must assemble, with no schism. Five: the karmavācana must be recited in full without additions or omissions. Six: a full quorum of ten monks, lawful and pure. If all six conditions are met, the ordination is lawful. If any one of the six is lacking, the ordination is not accomplished. Question: What constitutes being twenty years of age? Answer: The Mahāsāṅghika says one must be fully twenty years old and have completed twenty rainy seasons. If one is twenty years old but has not completed twenty rainy seasons, one does not receive the precepts. But if the rainy seasons are complete, one may receive the precepts. If one is born in winter and receives ordination after the summer retreat, this is called not yet twenty. If one is born in spring and ordains after the retreat ends, this is called twenty. If born during the first summer retreat and ordains after the first retreat ends, or if born during the later retreat and ordains after that retreat ends, this is called twenty. The Fourfold tradition counts twelve months as one year and takes the birth month as the reference point—such a person is considered twenty and may receive full precepts. The Mahāsāṅghika tradition requires twenty full rainy seasons. For example, one born in the twelfth month would have only eighteen rainy seasons by age twenty, hence not fully twenty. Thus, one must complete twenty summers before ordination. Yet ordination is a weighty matter—it is the very root of the monastic life. If the foundational procedure was defective, one is not truly a monk and is no different from a layperson. Accepting offerings and receiving prostrations from the faithful would all be envy of what rightfully belongs to the sangha, incurring immeasurable fault. If one knows for certain that he was ordained while underage, even a hundred years later he is still a novice, not entitled to senior monks' prostrations or the laity's offerings. He should be re-ordained. Question: Since receiving the precepts has included many recitations and karmavācana ceremonies, why must one be re-ordained? Answer: The original ordination was done with the intention of legitimately participating in recitations and karmavācana, not with a thieving intent. Thus, according to the Fourfold Vinaya, one may be re-ordained. Response: The Mahāsāṅghika says: if one does not know one's own age, one should ask one's parents or relatives. If still unknown, consult records of birth years. If no such records exist, observe one's physical features, hands, and feet. If still unable to determine, ask what king reigned and what year it was, whether the land was abundant or famine-stricken, flooded or dry. This is not to say all cases require such measures—only when the age is genuinely difficult to ascertain. Should all such investigations fail to establish that one is truly twenty, even with mature features and limbs, one does not receive the precepts. Question: The Fourfold Vinaya says that for one under twenty, the counted months in the womb and intercalary months may be included. How does this apply afterward? Answer: At the time of initial ordination, someone believed he was twenty. Only after ordination did he discover he was not yet twenty. Filled with doubt, he asked the Buddha. The Buddha said, "Include the months in the womb and intercalary months." If, counting every fourteen-day recitation and extending the count over years, one reaches a full number of years, there is no fault. This was the great sage's allowance to enable the precepts to be received. According to this country's legal system, an intercalary month occurs every five years. The Ten Recitations says King Bimbisāra had an intercalary month every six years. The Fivefold Recitations says every five years. It is uncertain which to follow as conclusive. Second. Why must the thirteen obstructions be inquired about for the question regarding physical obstructions? Answer: People with the thirteen obstructions are fettered by three kinds of hindrances and separated from the holy path. These obstructions prevent the precepts from arising, hence they are called obstructions. Thus they must be inquired about. Another question: What are the meanings of the names of the thirteen obstructions? Answer: One—the obstruction of having committed a pārājika offense based on association with sin: this person had previously received the great precepts, committed a pārājika offense, and was expelled by the sangha. Later he himself returns and seeks ordination again, but being cast out from the assembly, he is "at the edge"—effectively a border obstruction preventing the precepts from arising. Hence, obstruction. Two—the obstruction of defiling a nun of pure conduct: one who, since ordination, has never committed sexual misconduct is called pure in conduct. If a layperson violated such a woman, this person is also called an obstruction. Three—the obstruction of having a thieving mind regarding the precepts: this person, without a teacher, shaved his own head, donned robes, and without proper ordination nevertheless participated jointly in recitations and karmavācana, stealing the Dharma. Hence, thieving mind. Even monastics of the lower three classes (novices, etc.) who steal a hearing of the recitation and karmavācana, falsely acting as monks, also commit this offense. Four—the obstruction of having corrupted an outer sect: this person first belonged to an outside sect and came to ordain, but after receiving the precepts, without renouncing them, returned to the outer path. His wrong views being grave, he naturally lost the precepts. If he later seeks to ordain again in the Buddhadharma, he is called an obstruction. Five—the obstruction of being a eunuch: this person's nature is filled with afflictions and lacking the capacity to keep the precepts. Because the hindrance of afflictions is heavy, the great precepts do not arise. Hence, obstruction. Six—the obstruction of having killed one's father. Seven—the obstruction of having killed one's mother. A layperson murdering father or mother severs deep gratitude, obstructing the precepts from arising. Eight—the obstruction of having killed an arhat: as a layperson, killing a monk, of whose imminent passing of appearance and color show no change. Nine—the obstruction of having caused a schism in the sangha: preaching false teachings, confusing sentient beings, conducting separate legal acts within the same boundary, disrupting the Buddhadharma knowingly. Hence, obstruction. Ten—the obstruction of having brought blood from a Buddha out of malice: this person sought to kill the Buddha but could not take his life, subsequently harming the sacred body. Acting contrary to principle deeply, he incurred the grave offense of an "adverse action." In this degenerate age, if someone destroys temples, images, or relics, and observes auspicious signs, he also incurs such adverse actions and cannot receive the precepts. Hence, obstruction. Eleven—the obstruction of being a nonhuman: if a ghost or deity assumes human form seeking the great precepts, such a one is called a nonhuman obstruction. Twelve—the obstruction of being an animal: if a dragon or fox transmutes into human form, one must not ordain such a being. Thirteen—the obstruction of possessing both genders: this person has both male and female sexual characteristics, with no suitable place in either the monks' or nuns' communities. Hence, obstruction. Among these thirteen persons, the first four and the five grave offenses (pārājika-type) are governed by the hindrance of negative actions (karmavāraṇa), one eunuch is governed by the hindrance of afflictions, and the last three are governed by the hindrance of karmic retribution (vipākavāraṇa). Once bound by these three hindrances, they cannot be altered within a single lifetime. If they have not been ordained, do not ordain them; if they have already been ordained, expel them from the community. A detailed explanation appears in the treatises. Question: If the thirteen obstructions are not asked about, will the precepts still be conferred? Answer: The Fourfold Vinaya says: after the rule was established, no. Another question: The purpose of the inquiry was to guard against obstructions. Since there are truly none in this case, why must they still be asked? Answer: Though the inquiry is for the sake of protection, if there truly are obstructions, whether asked or not, no precepts are conferred. If there are truly none, the precepts are conferred when asked, but without the inquiry, they are not conferred. Third. The matter of whether a boundary is properly established is discussed later in the section on boundary rituals. Fourth: All monks within the boundary must assemble; any absent must express consent, thereby harmonizing the assembly with no schism. Fifth: The karmavācana must be recited in accordance with the text; for example, when performing the fourth proclamation, if spoken five times, three times, two times, or once, it is invalid. Sixth: The number of monks must be complete—at least ten pure senior monks. If there are more than ten, they are considered an assembly. If fewer, the ordination is invalid. Question: If someone guilty of a pārājika offense or one of the thirteen obstructions serves as the preceptor, is the ordination still valid? Answer: The Fourfold Vinaya says such a person does not count toward the quorum, and the ordination is invalid. As for the other witnesses being guilty of pārājika, if there are sufficient witnesses, the ordination is valid; if insufficient, it is not. The Fourfold Vinaya recounts that someone once received ordination from a preceptor who did not uphold the precepts. Later, filled with doubt, he asked the Buddha. The Buddha asked, "Did you know whether your preceptor upheld the precepts?" He answered, "I did not know." The Buddha said, "You are considered truly ordained." Another case concerned one who had received ordination from a preceptor who did not uphold the precepts. The Buddha asked, "Did you know your preceptor did not uphold the precepts?" He answered, "I knew." "Did you know that one should not receive ordination from such a person?" He answered, "I did not know." The Buddha said, "This person is considered truly ordained." There was also another who doubted his ordination and asked the Buddha. The Buddha asked, "Did you know your preceptor had broken the precepts?" He answered, "I knew." "Did you know you should not receive ordination from someone who has broken the precepts?" He answered, "I knew." "Did you know that receiving ordination from a precept-breaker would not confer the precepts?" He answered, "I did not know." The Buddha said, "This person is considered truly ordained." In the fourth case, one who knew all three points did not receive the precepts. Question: Can one receive the precepts without a preceptor? Answer: No. The Ten Recitations states why was this question addressed. Question: Can one receive the precepts without robes and bowl? Answer: The Fourfold Vinaya says, no robes and bowl, no ordination. Another question: Can one receive the precepts using borrowed robes and bowl? Answer: The Fivefold Vinaya says, when borrowing, the lender should first be instructed to relinquish the ownership, then ordination may proceed. The Vinaya Vibhāṣā asks: Can one receive the precepts without robes and bowl? It answers: Yes. If so, why are robes and bowl necessary? It answers: First, for proper deportment; second, for generating wholesome states in oneself and others; third, as a distinguishing mark. Hence they are required. Also, the Mahāsāṅghika says: one who counts his preceptor as part of the ten-member quorum is not properly ordained. And if he does not state his own name, does not state his preceptor's name, or does not formally request ordination, in each case the ordination is invalid. A preceptor should possess ten qualities: one, upholding the precepts; two, extensive learning in the Abhidharma; three, extensive learning in the Vinaya; four, practicing moral discipline; five, practicing concentration; six, practicing wisdom; seven, able to recognize one's own faults and cause others to confess their faults; eight, able to care for the sick; nine, if disciples face obstacles to pure conduct, able to rescue them or send others to rescue them; ten, having completed ten monastic rains <note>from the Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya</note>. A guiding preceptor (ācārya) should possess ten attributes: one, upholding the 250 precepts; two, extensive learning; three, able to teach disciples the Abhidharma; four, able to teach disciples the Vinaya; five, able to lead disciples to abandon wrong views and embrace right views; six, knowing the Prātimokṣa precepts; seven, knowing how to recite the Prātimokṣa precepts; eight, knowing how to perform the recitation (uposatha); nine, knowing how to conduct the karmavācana for the recitation; ten, having completed ten monastic rains <note>from the Fourfold Vinaya; the ten qualities in the "Ten Expressions" section for preceptors are the same</note>. For the two types of ācāryas—those regarding deportment and those regarding karmavācana (ceremonial procedures)—five qualities are required: one, knowing superior deportment <note>meaning the discipline of purity in body and speech, also called the restraining precepts</note>; two, knowing superior purification of conduct <note>meaning the discipline of a pure mind, also called the precepts that accompany concentration</note>; three, knowing the superior Prātimokṣa precepts <note>meaning the pure wisdom precepts, also called the precepts that accompany the path; being transcendental, exceeding worldly dharmas, they are called superior</note>; four, knowing the proper karmavācana <note>this one clause emphasizes skill in communal procedures and articulateness of expression</note>; five, having completed five monastic rains <note>after five years of training, one's own practice is accomplished and one is qualified to be a teacher for others</note>. Witnesses at the ordination platform should also possess five qualities: one, clearly knowing what constitutes an obstruction; two, clearly knowing what is not an obstruction; three, clearly knowing the wording of the proclamation; four, clearly knowing the karmavācana recitation; five, purity of ethical conduct. Possessing these five qualities enables one to uphold communal matters <note>attesting to proper form and procedure</note>. There are five cases in which one may not be without a guiding preceptor: one, inability to diligently observe deportment <note>precepts</note>; two, inability to enhance pure conduct; three, inability to enhance the Prātimokṣa precepts; four, being unable to abandon wrong views and dwell in right views; five, having fewer than five rains<note>from the Fourfold Vinaya</note>. The Ten Recitations says: a five-year monk who fully possesses the five qualities is permitted to live without a guiding preceptor: one, knowing what is an offense; two, knowing what is not an offense; three, knowing lighter offenses; four, knowing heavier offenses; five, fluent in reciting the Prātimokṣa. Without these five qualities, no matter how many years, one must live one's entire life under the guidance of another. Question: May a senior monk live under the guidance of a junior monk? Answer: Yes—except for the act of prostrating to him, all other conduct should follow the rules of a disciple. There are five conditions that end one's relationship with a guiding preceptor: one, death <note>the teacher has passed away</note>; two, departure—either the teacher travels far away, or the disciple has decided to leave the boundary; three, renunciation of the monastic life <note>the teacher gives up the precepts</note>; four, the teacher no longer provides guidance <note>the teacher withdraws instruction</note>; five, the disciple returns to dwell under the preceptor's authority—if the preceptor accepts him, the ācārya need not request further instruction. The Ten Recitations Vinaya prescribes the rules of dependence, even down to not being able to fetch water for rinsing without first having requested guidance. Initially, due to unfamiliarity with the rules, allowances were made and sleeping together was even permitted; but living beyond that without a teacher is not allowed. The Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya states: Upāli had two novices who wanted to attain ordination in a single karmavācana ceremony. Upon being informed, the Buddha said, "If they share the same preceptor, it is permitted." The Mahāsāṅghika Vinaya also describes four kinds of teachers: one, without Dharma and without provisions <note>one may leave without even asking permission</note>; two, without Dharma but with clothing and food <note>one should ask and then leave</note>; three, without clothing and food but with Dharma <note>though difficult, one should remain</note>; four, with both Dharma and provisions <note>this is a pleasant abode—such a teacher should never be abandoned</note>. The first two kinds of teachers have no Dharma; the disciple should take leave after expressing remorse and departure. With the latter two kinds who have Dharma, the disciple must not leave them for life. There are five faults of a teacher for which a disciple may apologize, take leave, and go <note>one should say to the teacher: "I follow the Dharma, but you do not know it; I do not follow the Dharma, but you do not know it; I violate the precepts, yet you do not correct me; you do not even know of my violation; and after my violation, if I confess, you do not acknowledge it. Since the benefit of training after ordination is absent, I take my leave to seek instruction in the supramundane Dharma abroad</note>. Question: Now that the five conditions have been discussed, why is it that even though this pertains to one who is fully trained, a wise one, why must I follow this? Although the precepts may be numerous in their reception according to the faculties of those receiving them, in essence they reduce to a single performative (ritual action) and non-performative (resultant commitment) binary. At first, in front of the teacher, one formulates the mind to receive the precepts and moves the body and speech to bring this about—this is called performative precepts (form). Immediately upon receiving it, the precepts are established within and no longer need to be re-enacted; this is called non-performative precepts (substance). As this is transcendent Dharma, one receives it through a performing mind, and through a performing mind one may abandon it; in that case one's wholesome karma is lost. If one does not lose it, it will certainly bring karmic results—unlike the precepts themselves, which may be relinquished. The Fourfold Vinaya says: at one time, someone was given full ordination before first being given the novice precepts. Not knowing whether it was valid or not, he asked the Buddha. The Buddha said, "He has fully received the precepts. The sangha has committed an offense in administering it." The Vinaya-mātṛkā says: someone received ordination from a teacher who had broken the precepts and asked the Buddha in doubt. The Buddha asked, "Did you first know whether your preceptor had received the precepts from his own teacher?" He answered, "I did not know." The Buddha said, "This person truly received the precepts." Question: May monks confer the sixfold training rules (śikṣamāṇa) and the ten precepts upon nuns? Answer: Monks may conduct only three kinds of karmavācana for nuns: ordination; conformity (mānatva, penance); and removal of offenses. No other procedures are authorized in the canonical texts. If attempted, the karmavācana is invalid and both parties incur offenses. Question: Why do fully ordained nuns take monks as their teachers, while śikṣamāṇās and novice nuns do not? Answer: Women lack independent will, therefore the sage established that for full ordination, a monk must serve as teacher. But śikṣamāṇās and novice nuns, being young and weak at their initial departure from home, rely on senior nuns for teaching and training, and monks are not required. Question: Is it necessary to request a new preceptor when receiving the sixfold training rules? Answer: No—because the śikṣamāṇā only adds six of the ten precepts in train–ing; the position has not changed, so no new request is required. Also, according to all four Vinaya traditions, if the ordination is performed where the candidate cannot see and the teacher cannot hear (e.g., behind a screen), or if addressed face-to-face in direct view, the karmavācana is invalid: the sixfold rules are not conferred, and an offense is incurred. Question: Some say senior nuns may bow to novices; is this lawful? Answer: Those who say this fail to understand the shape of the Vinaya and speak falsely. Why? In the chapter on dwellings in the Fourfold Vinaya, the Buddha himself established the rules of respect for monks: novices (monks) should bow to senior novice nuns. How much more should senior nuns bow to monks, rather than novices? Who should not be bowed to? Those who have the thirteen obstructions, those who have been raised (admonished thrice) for a major offense, those who have been expelled for a pārājika, and those speaking unlawfully. Bowing to such persons incurs offenses on both sides. Next, the method of abandoning the precepts. The precepts are pure dharmas and should elevate one to levels beyond the mundane. Thus, monks and nuns of the five assemblies guard the Buddha's precepts—they would rather die than violate them. If one deliberately breaches them, it is better that one had never left home at all. Why? Because one destroys one's own path, defiles one's teachers and fellow monastics, pollutes the Three Jewels, betrays the four debts, no longer legitimately accepts the laity's offerings, and accrues even greater guilt. If a person is overwhelmed by afflictions and their aspiration for the Dharma is thin, and they ignorantly desire to do evil and cannot be restrained, the Buddha declared: "Let them renounce the precepts and return to the household life." But they must not lean on the Buddhadharma to violate its pure restrictions. Should one wish to abandon the precepts, one should approach a senior monk, kneel with hands clasped, and say three times: "Venerable sir, may you mind me. I, the monk so-and-so, now abandon the great precepts and return to lay life. May the venerable one know that I am now a layperson." If wishing to keep the five precepts, one should say, "I return to being a lay devotee (upāsaka)." If keeping the ten precepts, one should say, "I return to the status of novice (śrāmaṇera). May the venerable one know that I am now a novice." Because one originally received the precepts from the sangha, one should return them to the sangha, and the sangha bears witness. Hence, this cannot be done before any other person <note>if a nun, she must abandon them to a fellow nun</note>. If, after abandoning the precepts, one still delights in the Buddhadharma and wishes to leave home again, one may indeed do so—but for a nun, this is not allowed. Why? According to the Ten Recitations Vinaya, when laypeople saw a nun who had returned to lay life, they ridiculed her: "This nun used to respect our teachings, then we respected her, and now she respects us again—she has no stability." When the monks reported this to the Buddha, the Buddha said: "If a nun has abandoned the precepts even once, she may never again be permitted to leave home or receive the great precepts."