Treatise on the Eighteen Emptinesses (十八空論)

Treatise on the Eighteen Emptinesses(also sixteen, also eighteen, also fourteen, also seventeen)

Composed by Bodhisattva Nagarjuna

Translated by Paramārtha, Tripitaka Master from India

Question: If emptiness is undifferentiated, how can there be eighteen kinds of it? Answer: To show that the absence of self in both people and phenomena is the universal characteristic of all things. Now, based on the different categories of phenomena, it is divided into eighteen. What are they? 1. Inner emptiness 2. Outer emptiness 3. Both inner and outer emptiness 4. Emptiness of the great elements 5. Emptiness of emptiness itself 6. True emptiness 7. Emptiness of conditioned phenomena 8. Emptiness of unconditioned phenomena 9. Ultimate emptiness 10. Emptiness without before or after 11. Emptiness that never abandons 12. Emptiness of Buddha-nature 13. Emptiness of intrinsic characteristics 14. Emptiness of all phenomena 15. Emptiness of non-existence 16. Emptiness of existence 17. Emptiness of both existence and non-existence 18. Emptiness of the unattainable

These eighteen are combined into sixteen emptinesses. There are two reasons for establishing sixteen emptinesses: first, their essence; second, their function.

The first is the inner emptiness, also known as the emptiness of the receiver. Ordinary people and those of the two lesser vehicles consider the six sense bases as the receiver, because they can receive the karmic results of the six sense objects. Now it is clarified that there are only the six sense faculties, without any inherent holder; because there is no holder, it is called the emptiness of the receiver.

The second is the emptiness of the external world, also called the emptiness of what is perceived. Apart from the six external sense objects, there is no separate reality that can be grasped. Whatever living beings perceive and use is merely the six sense objects. Since there is no inner self to perceive, and no external reality to be perceived, both the self and phenomena are empty. Consciousness alone exists without an external world—this is called the emptiness of the external. And because there is no external world, there is also no consciousness—this is the emptiness of the internal. When the six sense faculties have no consciousness, that means there is no self; when there are no sense faculties or sense objects, that means there are no phenomena. Thus, the two kinds of emptiness—internal and external—support and complete each other.

Third, the emptiness of both internal and external—this refers to the emptiness of the body. This body, composed of the four great elements, serves as the basis for both internal and external. The internal basis is the six sense faculties: the five physical senses, each with their subtle sensory substance, along with the mind faculty, all depend on this body, hence called "internal basis." The external basis refers to the six external sense objects: within one's own body of four great elements, apart from the subtle substance of the five faculties, the remaining elements like form and smell belong to the six external objects. Since they are held and supported by the five faculties, they are called "external"—not meaning separate from the body itself. This body sustains both the faculties and their objects, hence called "basis," the support of faculties and objects. Both the faculties and what is not faculty are entirely empty, hence called "emptiness of both internal and external."

The fourth great emptiness refers to that which the body relies upon—namely, the material world. In all ten directions, it is limitless and boundless, entirely empty. Hence, it is called the great emptiness.

The fifth is the emptiness of emptiness. It can illuminate the true nature, bringing together the previous four kinds of emptiness. Named after the object, it is called "emptiness wisdom." This emptiness wisdom is itself empty, hence the establishment of "emptiness of emptiness."

The sixth true emptiness is the emptiness of the true realm. The practitioner sees that both inner and outer are empty, with neither self nor phenomena. This realm is real, and thus it is called "true." It arises from the nature of discrimination, but this nature itself cannot be grasped. When the nature of discrimination is empty, that is true emptiness.

The six emptinesses are explained in sequence, each revealing the essence of emptiness in itself:

1. **Emptiness of the receiver** – the one who perceives 2. **Emptiness of the received** – the object perceived 3. **Emptiness of the body itself** – the physical self 4. **Emptiness of where the body dwells** – the place of abode 5. **Emptiness of the perceiving awareness** – the faculty that illuminates 6. **Emptiness of the observed object** – the field of perception

The first four all pertain to the emptiness of what is observed. The fifth is the emptiness of the observing mind itself. The sixth is the emptiness of the mental images and distinctions made about what is observed.

In other words: the first four are what is known, the fifth is the knower, and the sixth is the characteristic features of what is known.

The fifth—the emptiness of the knower—serves to correct the first four objects. Those four objects are seen as empty. The sixth—the true emptiness—corrects the fifth, revealing that even the knowing mind is empty.

If the fifth emptiness did not correct the first four, then both a self and phenomena would appear, constituting what is called "discriminative nature." But through this wisdom, one sees that the world before one is without a self and without inherent phenomena—this corrects the object of perception.

If the sixth emptiness did not correct the fifth, then even that wisdom—being merely an understanding of truth—would still fall into discriminative nature. Hence, the sixth is called "true emptiness," and its purpose is to correct and transcend the knowing mind itself.

Second Principle: The Emptiness of Action and the Emptiness of Non-Action There are twelve kinds of emptiness. Among them, the second principle clarifies two: one is the emptiness of action, and the other is the emptiness of non-action. Bodhisattvas study these two types of emptiness in order to attain two kinds of wholesome qualities: one is the wholesome path, and the other is the wholesome fruit. The path refers to the thirty-seven factors of enlightenment and so on, while the wholesome fruit refers to enlightenment and so forth.

The emptiness of action means that the paths of the three vehicles have neither a self nor phenomena. They are neither real nor unreal. Letting go of these four kinds of mental attachments is called the wholesome cause. To attain this wholesome cause, bodhisattvas study and contemplate the emptiness of action.

The emptiness of non-action refers to the two kinds of wholesome fruits, namely the remaining and non-remaining nirvana. If there is remaining nirvana, it removes the accumulation of suffering, and this fruit is free from the four inverted views—it is not permanence, bliss, self, or purity. If there is non-remaining nirvana, it extinguishes suffering, and this is true permanence, bliss, self, and purity.

These two kinds of emptiness, the seventh and eighth, are for the pure bodhisattva's self-transformation: the first leads to attaining the path, and the latter leads to attaining the fruit.

Third, ultimate emptiness. Bodhisattvas cultivate emptiness to benefit others endlessly—they vow to teach and guide all beings until they are completely liberated. Yet this very resolve carries attachment. In contemplating the mind, one must let go of even this ultimate intention. Only then does natural benefit arise, and this is true wisdom, called ultimate emptiness. If one thinks, "By holding this ultimate resolve, I can benefit others; without it, I cannot"—then it is no longer natural, nor is it constant benefit, and it is not emptiness. This mind of ultimacy is the ninth wisdom, known as ultimate emptiness.

Fourth, emptiness without beginning or end—also called the emptiness of no beginning. This supports the ultimate emptiness and benefits others through it. Without beginning or end means there is no start and no finish. If bodhisattvas fail to understand this emptiness, they grow weary and wish to abandon the cycle of birth and death. But once they see that birth and death are empty, they no longer distinguish between before and after, beginning and end. With no such distinctions, they feel neither worry nor joy about short or long—no worry at the long, no joy at the short. Free from worry and joy, they can remain in birth and death without abandoning it. Because they do not abandon it, their ultimate benefit to others is achieved. Thus the tenth contemplation is on the emptiness of no beginning.

Fifth: The Space of Not Abandoning. Bodhisattvas cultivate this meditative stillness to ensure that their merits and wholesome roots are inexhaustible. Why? Because even all Buddhas, in their final nirvana without remainder, do not abandon the gateway of merits and wholesome roots. Though the fruits of worldly existence have been exhausted, merits and wholesome roots exist for the sake of transforming beings, and thus this function remains constant. Even after entering nirvana, the Tathāgata continues to manifest the two bodies of response and transformation according to beings' opportunities, guiding and benefiting all sentient beings—this is the meaning of the mind arising anew. Therefore, as long as beings are not exhausted, the functions of response and transformation are not exhausted either. Hence it is said: Though entering nirvana without remainder, one does not abandon merits and wholesome roots.

If lesser vehicles (the two vehicles) enter cessation, there is no arising of mind anew, because their compassion is shallow and thin, and they do not transform beings. If the Buddha enters nirvana without remainder yet the mind arises anew, it is because the three bodies of all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas benefit beings without end. The Tathāgata's Dharma body is the foundation of all unconditioned dharmas, hence it is said: Though scattering and ceasing, merits are not abandoned.

We know that within nirvana there still exists the Dharma body because the function reveals the essence. Since we observe the functions of response and transformation as inexhaustible, we know the essence of this body is forever serene and never decays. As the Vibhāṣā masters say: "No" — nirvana has no self-nature, yet one cannot say it is non-existent. Why? Because it enables the manifestation of functions. Without relying on nirvana, wisdom would not arise; without wisdom, afflictions would not be extinguished. Since nirvana can give rise to the path, and the path can extinguish delusion, this is the function of nirvana. Seeing such function, we know there must be an essence—thus one cannot say it is non-existent.

The Tathāgata's Dharma body being within nirvana follows the same principle. To eliminate the discrimination that nirvana abandons merits—this is the nature of discrimination. In ultimate truth, there is no such discrimination, hence it is called the Space of Not Abandoning. Words say nirvana does not abandon merits, yet within nirvana there is also no notion of "not abandoning," hence it is called the Space of Not Abandoning, which also embodies the meaning of not abandoning birth-and-death.

Earlier, we clarified that not abandoning birth-and-death means benefiting others to the end, unlike the two vehicles who cannot benefit forever. Now we clarify that whether in birth-and-death or in nirvana, one transforms beings—this meaning is no different, so the preceding discussion leads to this point. In total, there are three spaces concerning the matter of benefiting others; this is the eleventh, the Space of Not Abandoning, also called the Space of Non-Dispersal.

Sixth, the Space of Nature; Seventh, the Space of Characteristics; Eighth, the Space of All Dharmas—these three clarify the causes of benefiting oneself and others.

Question: What is the purpose of emptiness? Answer: Emptiness is the pure Buddha-nature itself, hence it is called the emptiness of inherent nature.

Question: Why is it called the inherently empty nature? Answer: The Buddha-nature is precisely the self-nature of all things. Why? Because it exists naturally. But self-nature has two meanings: one is beginningless, and the other is causal. For example, in beginningless birth-and-death, the two aspects—mind and no-mind—exist naturally without a cause. If the mind has a cause, is this cause originally existing or newly arising? If the cause is originally existing, then it is itself natural. Since it is natural, one should also allow the mind to be natural. If previously there was no cause, then sentient beings should not exist; only when a cause arises do sentient beings come to be, like earth or stones. If there is a cause at some point, beings should then form. Therefore, we know that nature is divided into one part as mind and one part as no-mind—hence the statement that in beginningless birth-and-death, mind and no-mind arise naturally without a cause.

The Buddha-nature is likewise naturally without a cause. If even delusion carries the meaning of naturalness, how much more so does reality? Thus, the beginningless Buddha-nature serves as the cause. That is why the six sense faculties seek liberation—if there were no Buddha-nature, the fruit of liberation could not be accomplished. Just as a pure jewel can clarify murky water, so too, because the Buddha-nature is beginningless, birth-and-death is beginningless, and distinctions of unity and difference, purity and impurity, are all empty, as explained above.

This emptiness-nature, apart from the five faults, reveals five kinds of virtues. People and dharmas belong to the discriminated nature. From people and dharmas arises discrimination—this is the dependent nature. Seeking dharmas within the discriminated nature, nothing can be found; seeking the discriminated people and dharmas within the dependent nature, nothing can be found either—this is the real nature. The real has no substance; lacking substance, it has no mark; lacking mark, it has no arising; lacking arising, it has no ceasing; lacking ceasing, it is tranquil; tranquility is nirvāṇa in itself.

This inherent Buddha-nature eliminates five kinds of faults:

First, it removes a lowly mindset. Without a firm belief that Buddha-nature exists and can be attained, and that attaining it brings immeasurable merit, one cannot generate the aspiration for enlightenment (bodhicitta). Without this aspiration, one remains stuck in a lowly state. Buddha-nature inspires this aspiration, which is why it is said to remove the lowly mindset.

Second, it removes arrogance. If a person fails to understand that Buddha-nature is equally present in all beings, they may think, "I have Buddha-nature and have generated bodhicitta, but others lack it and cannot." This breeds pride. But when one truly understands this principle, distinctions of self and other dissolve, and arrogance disappears. This is why it is said to remove arrogance.

Third, it removes attachment to illusion and abandonment of reality. Illusory things—such as being hit, cursed, or slandered—are the source of suffering in cyclic existence. They are not originally inherent, nor are they naturally occurring; they arise from the mind's own deluded construction. If one does not understand the true principle, one mistakes these illusions for reality, clings to them, and turns away from what is real. This gives rise to the three poisons and other afflictions. But if one recognizes that worldly existence is illusory and not ultimately real, one no longer sees an "attacker" or "one who curses," no longer perceives others' faults, and no longer generates afflictions—thus abandoning illusion. Instead, one sees that all beings possess Buddha-nature and are equal in its virtues. This is embracing reality, and from this arises compassion and the bodhisattva path.

Fourth, it removes the view of self. All phenomena are originally real in their self-nature, and ideas of existence and non-existence are both equal in the ultimate sense. When one understands this, one lets go of self-grasping and attachment to conceptual signs.

Fifth, it removes fear and enables beings to faithfully accept the profound Dharma. The true Dharma encompasses both its phenomenal and formless aspects. By understanding Buddha-nature, one can faith-fully accept the formless Dharma and thus will not slander the Mahayana.

Next, it is explained that this Essential Nature, being Empty, gives rise to five kinds of virtues: First, it removes inferiority and gives rise to right effort. Second, it removes arrogance and gives rise to equanimity. Third, it removes delusion and gives rise to compassion. Fourth, it removes wrong views and gives rise to wisdom. Fifth, it removes fear and allows one to accept the true Dharma. Therefore, it is called Essential Emptiness.

This reveals that the principle of Buddha Nature possesses these five virtues and is free from five faults. By guarding and purifying this nature, one achieves the cause of self-benefit. Thus, this twelfth [chapter] is named "Essential Emptiness." Buddha Nature itself is emptiness.

The seven aspects of emptiness are practiced to attain the thirty-two major marks and eighty minor marks. Marks are of two kinds: first, physical marks, which refer to the four elements and five sense objects; second, non-physical marks, which refer to all mental phenomena of the four aggregates. The transformation body is neither birth-and-death nor nirvana. Why? Because birth-and-death is false and deluded, merely the truths of suffering and origination—the transformation body is not like that. It arises in accordance with the dharma-body and has a nature that is not deluded; moreover, it can remove the delusions of sentient beings, so it is said to be not birth-and-death. As for not being nirvana, it has a beginning and an end. Because it is not birth-and-death, it lacks the false marks of birth-and-death; because it is not nirvana, it also lacks the true marks of nirvana—therefore it is called emptiness of marks. If a bodhisattva can cultivate this emptiness of marks, then the thirty-two marks and eighty excellent features become the cultivation and purification of the transformation body's appearance, leading to clarity. Hence the thirteenth is called emptiness of marks.

The teaching on the emptiness of all dharmas: The dharmas of all Buddhas are countless as the sands of the Ganges—such as the Ten Powers, the Fearlessness, and so on. These are empty, whether considered as separate from or not separate from their luminous nature. When comparing the Dharma Body to the Response Body, there is both separation and non-separation. When the Response Body ceases, it does not depart from the Dharma Body. Why? Because the Dharma Body is the root and the Response Body is the branch; the branch does not depart from the root, while the root is free from the branch.

Question: If the Dharmakāya were not separate from the Manifestation Body, what fault would arise?

Answer: If that were the case, then when one person attains Buddhahood, everyone should also attain it. But since not everyone attains it at the same time, we know that the Dharma Body is not identical with the Emanation Body. Yet the Dharma Body is also not separate from the Emanation Body. Why? Because the Dharma Body has no distinctions and is always inseparable from the merits of the Buddhas of the past, present, and future. If one can cultivate in accordance with this principle—that it is both separate and not separate—one can attain the fruit of the Emanation Body. However, both the Emanation Body and the Transformation Body can benefit living beings: the Transformation Body is primarily for planting seeds, while the Emanation Body is for bringing them to maturity. This enables all dharmas to be empty, purifying all Buddha-dharmas. All Buddha-dharmas also have two aspects: first, neither separate nor not separate, because one should not cling to either extreme; second, no attachment and no object of attachment, because there is no difference between the mind and its objects. This is the fourteenth point on the emptiness of all dharmas. So far, there have been three kinds of emptiness, illustrating the causes for benefiting oneself and others.

The fifteenth is the emptiness of phenomena, and the sixteenth is the emptiness of non-phenomena. These two types of emptiness both point to the same essence as the previous fourteen.

"Emptiness of phenomena" means that both the self and all things are ultimately nonexistent—this is taught to counter the mistaken view that they truly exist.

"Emptiness of non-phenomena" means that the truth of "no self, no phenomena" is real and valid. This is taught to counter the mistaken view that such truth does not exist at all.

By moving beyond both extremes—neither clinging to existence nor denying it—we reach the essence of emptiness itself. Therefore, these two types of emptiness are still included within the framework of the previous fourteen.

Seventeenth: The emptiness of existence and non-existence. This single emptiness gives rise to all aspects of emptiness. What is meant by "the emptiness of existence and non-existence" is that this emptiness reveals that, in its essence, there is fundamentally no existing thing—this is called "definitive non-existence." Yet there exists the principle that there is no self and no phenomena—this is called "definitive existence." This non-existence and this existence are the essence and characteristic of emptiness. The essence clarifies that the principle neither increases nor decreases; the characteristic clarifies that its essence is definitive. Definitive non-existence and definitive existence mean true non-existence and true existence: truly no self, truly no phenomena, and truly this principle exists. The reason this treatise only clarifies sixteen emptinesses is precisely because these two emptinesses are subsumed within the essence of the previous six emptinesses. It is also presented as fourteen emptinesses because the later four emptinesses further elucidate the characteristics of the earlier essences. These later emptinesses are all included within the scope of the previous fourteen emptinesses. Thus, there are differences in scope—fourteen, sixteen, or eighteen—broader or narrower.

Eighteenth: The empty fruit. What is called "unattainable emptiness" clarifies that this fruit is difficult to attain. Why? Because this principle of emptiness is neither annihilation nor permanence, yet it is the great permanence. Since the meaning of permanence is unattainable, the meaning of annihilation is also unattainable. There is no fixed characteristic to be attained, which is why it is called difficult to attain. Why? This principle of emptiness is neither suffering nor pleasure, yet it is the great bliss; neither self nor no-self, yet it is the great self; neither pure nor impure, yet it is the great purity. This emptiness is included within the functions of the eight emptinesses. Because seeing that there is no person or dharma is precisely the essence of emptiness, it is said that it differs according to different functions, forming distinctions apart from the general framework. As discussed above, the first six emptinesses clarify the essence of emptiness, while the ten emptinesses clarify the function of emptiness. Among the functions, the last two emptinesses are included within the fourteen emptinesses; the seventeenth emptiness is included within the six emptinesses as essence; the eighteenth emptiness is included within the eight emptinesses as function. Thus, eighteen becomes sixteen, and sixteen returns to fourteen. Sometimes it is broad first and then narrow, sometimes narrow first and then broad. Principle and phenomena differ, essence and characteristics are distinct. Whether separated or combined, its meaning is thus.

Next, the fourth section distinguishes the principle of emptiness in three ways: First, purity and impurity. If one says that emptiness is definitely impure, then all sentient beings could not attain liberation. Why? Because what is definitely impure cannot be made pure. If one says that emptiness is definitely pure, then spiritual practice would be useless. Why? Because before attaining liberation through the undefiled path, the essence of emptiness would already be naturally pure by itself. Then there would be no afflictions as obstacles to wisdom. Moreover, if it could be removed without effort, all sentient beings would liberate themselves. But we see that sentient beings do not attain liberation without effort, so we know this emptiness is not definitely pure. Yet through effort, liberation is attained, so we know this emptiness is not definitely impure. This is called the principle of purity-impurity and impurity-purity.

Another explanation: If one says the principle of emptiness is definitely impure, then all effort would have no result. Why? Because the nature of the emptiness realm is impure, and even if one cultivates the path, it could never be removed, making the path useless. Since this implication does not hold, we know this emptiness is not impure by nature.

問：既然如此，既然沒有自性上的不清淨，也應該沒有自性上的清淨。那要如何區分法界既不是清淨，也不是不清淨呢？

Question: Why not simply say that meditative concentration is either pure or impure, instead of saying it may be pure or may be impure?

Answer: To show that the Dharma Realm differs in nature from the five sense bases and meditative states, etc., so it is not described as "pure." This is to clarify that although the eyes and other sense faculties are covered by afflictions, they are not stained by them. Yet they are also not inherently pure, nor are they pure by nature—thus they are not called "pure." As for the Dharma Realm, although it is covered by afflictions, it is not stained by them, so it is not impure—rather, it is pure by nature. Because it is pure by nature, it is not described as "impure." Therefore, we know that the Dharma Realm and the five sense bases are fundamentally different in essence.

Question: Why is stillness (concentration) not spoken of as impure?

Answer: This is to clarify that the Dharma Realm (the ultimate nature of reality) and meditative absorption (dhyāna) are different. Why? If one says that meditative absorption inherently contains mental defilements, then its own nature would be impure. Yet the Dharma Realm, though covered by defilements, is not impure by nature. Therefore, one cannot say that absorption is impure. Not being impure—this is precisely the principle of the Dharma Realm.

問：為什麼不說「如如定」本來就是清淨的，反而要談論「清淨」與「不清淨」呢？

To help sentient beings on the path of cultivation, the teaching speaks of purity and impurity. This reveals that Thusness and the five sense faculties are distinct. Why? Because both Thusness and the five faculties are covered by afflictions, yet they are not tainted by them—both are pure, but the meaning of purity differs. Why? The essence of the five faculties is free from afflictions, not of the nature of afflictions, so the five faculties are solely pure, not impure. But Thusness does not depart from afflictions; it is the very nature of afflictions. Therefore, we know it is pure yet also has the meaning of impurity.

Similarly, Thusness and meditative concentration are both covered by afflictions and both carry the meaning of impurity, yet their impurity differs. If it is meditative concentration, being covered by afflictions, it is also tainted, completely losing its own nature, becoming entirely afflictions and unwholesomeness. But if it is Thusness, although it does not depart from afflictions and is called impure, it still does not lose its own nature, nor does it transform into afflictions or unwholesomeness. Therefore, it is said that being impure, it yet has the meaning of purity.

This can be expressed in three statements: First, the five faculties, being free from afflictions and untainted by them, are only pure, not impure. Second, meditative concentration, becoming afflictions and tainted by them, is only impure, with no purity remaining. Third, Thusness, being distinct from the five faculties, is untainted by afflictions and thus pure; yet not departing from afflictions, it is impure. Hence, it is said to be pure yet also impure.

Moreover, because Thusness is distinct from meditative concentration, it does not depart from afflictions and is therefore called impure; yet it still does not lose its own nature, nor does it transform into afflictions or unwholesomeness, so it is said that being impure, it yet has the meaning of purity.

Second, the principle of neither existent nor non-existent. Since there is no self and no dharmas, it is called non-existent; yet there truly exists the principle of no self and no dharmas, so it is called non-non-existent. It is also said to be truly existent and truly non-existent, which is neither existent nor non-existent.

Third, the principle of neither one nor different. Among the various purities and impurities, purity transcends both permanence and annihilation. Permanence differs from self, so it is called not one; self is inherently permanent, so it is called not different. This illustrates that Thusness embodies the three virtues.

Here is a structured explanation of these sixteen emptinesses, organized into four categories:

The first category contains six emptinesses, explaining the essential nature of emptiness itself. The second contains eight emptinesses, explaining the functions and activities of emptiness. The third contains two emptinesses, distinguishing between the defiled and the pure. The fourth clarifies how the principles of these sixteen emptinesses can eliminate four types of faults: removing conceptual elaboration, removing fear, removing laziness, and removing doubt.

First, removing conceptual elaboration has two aspects: Ordinary beings in the world generate countless conceptual fabrications about internal and external phenomena—such as "I exist" or "I do not exist"—all of which are based on views of people, paths, and results. These are called conceptual elaborations. When one sees that the path and its fruits are all empty, these elaborations can be removed. Specifically, the emptiness of the internal, emptiness of the external, emptiness of both internal and external, and the great emptiness—these four emptinesses can eliminate the conceptual elaborations of both a self of persons and a self of phenomena in the worldly realm. The emptiness of emptiness itself and the emptiness of ultimate truth—these two emptinesses can eliminate the conceptual elaborations regarding causes, results, objects, and knowledge in the supramundane realm.

Second, removing fear: When beings hear that all people are empty, they become fearful and are unwilling to cultivate the path. Therefore, the Buddha explained the functions of these emptinesses. Why? Because if a person can cultivate the eight emptinesses of function, they can attain the path and its fruits, and even all merits such as the three bodies of a Buddha.

Third, removing laziness: If one observes and decides that things are inherently pure, then there is no need to cultivate the path. If one decides that things are inherently impure, then they can never be removed or purified, and there is no point in cultivating—one would just remain trapped in cyclic existence with no liberation whatsoever. Therefore, it is necessary to distinguish between the pure and the impure. Why? Because when afflictions are present, one is impure; after removing afflictions, one becomes pure. Thus, one should indeed cultivate the path.

Fourth, removing doubt: When confused minds hear that "suchness" both exists and does not exist, they become hesitant and cannot decide. This is like seeing a stump and thinking it is a person, or calling a person a stump. The Buddha therefore clearly distinguishes: the self of persons and the self of phenomena are definitely nonexistent, while the principle of no-self and no-phenomena definitely exists. Thus, both the meanings of emptiness and existence are established. This kind of reasoning can remove the mind of doubt.

The third clarity illuminates the true nature of Consciousness-Only. It discerns that all phenomena are merely pure consciousness—there is no subject that doubts, nor any object to be doubted. A detailed explanation is found in the *Consciousness-Only Treatise*. However, the meaning of Consciousness-Only has two aspects: first, the expedient approach, which involves first observing that only the *ālaya* consciousness exists, with no other realms present. At this stage, one realizes the emptiness of both the perceived object and the perceiving mind. When false consciousness has been completely eliminated, this is called expedient Consciousness-Only. Second, the correct contemplation of Consciousness-Only, which utterly eradicates the delusive minds and realms of birth-and-death until all is purified, leaving only the *amala* pure mind.

問：如何知道這七種都屬於第一義諦、即真實性所攝呢？

Answer: Through two aspects, we know that these seven types are all supreme and ultimate—namely, they are the domain of the two kinds of wisdom. What is called "supreme" refers to Suchness, the truth of the highest meaning. This truth of the highest meaning is illuminated by wisdom that accords with reality, hence it is called supreme. What is called "ultimate" refers to the domain of all-knowing wisdom, which is the conventional truth. This conventional truth is illuminated by wisdom that accords with measure. Wisdom that accords with reality is non-discriminating wisdom. Wisdom that accords with measure is the wisdom that arises after non-discrimination. Furthermore, wisdom that accords with reality is the wisdom of all modes, while wisdom that accords with measure is all-knowing wisdom. It is a single wisdom that penetrates the true and extends to the conventional. In its empty and true aspect, it is named wisdom that accords with reality, also called wisdom of all modes. In its conventional aspect, it is named wisdom that accords with measure, also called all-knowing wisdom. Therefore, "supreme and ultimate" refers to the domain of these two wisdoms—what is known by wisdom that accords with reality and wisdom that accords with measure.

There is another meaning: we know that these seven types of Suchness are contained in true reality. Why? Because it is clarified that all true dharmas are free from delusions of one and many, being neither one nor many, free from the four erroneous views. It is clarified that for these seven types of Suchness, one cannot say they are different from all characteristics, nor can one say they are not different from all characteristics. Therefore, saying they are different from all characteristics cannot be established, and saying they are not different from all characteristics also cannot be established. Likewise, being both different and not different, or neither different nor not different—all cannot be established. It is clarified that for these seven types of Suchness, within all characteristics, one cannot say they exist, nor can one say they do not exist. Both existing and not existing, or neither existing nor not existing—all cannot be established, because they are free from the four erroneous views.

There is yet another meaning: one can gain faith that they exist. Why? Because they constitute the realm of purity, therefore we know they exist. If a person can focus their mind on these dharmas, their mind becomes pure. Therefore, it should be known that these seven types of Suchness are all permanent, because their nature does not change at any time. Because they are the realm of purity, it should be known that they are of true good nature. Because this principle is constantly good, it should be known that they are the truth of bliss. Why? Because they are permanent, they are blissful; because they are good, they are pure. Thus these seven types of Suchness are the essential nature of all dharmas. Because they are the essential nature, they are spoken of as self. This is the four virtues of permanence, bliss, purity, and self.

Another explanation: the reason these seven types are called Suchness, the truth of the highest meaning, and true reality is that they are all of a single flavor.

Now I will explain the true nature of arising. It means that cause and effect share the same underlying reality, though they are called by different names. Why do we say they are one? Because both are dependent on other conditions for their existence. Since the cause arises from conditions, and the effect also arises from conditions, the substance of this cause and effect is the five aggregates.

The five aggregates, when morally neutral, are called the effect. When they involve good or bad moral quality, they are called the cause. What produces is the cause; what is produced is the effect. Likewise, something is an effect relative to what came before, and a cause relative to what comes after. Therefore, we know that it is just a single moment of the five aggregates, yet it carries both the name of cause and the name of effect. In substance, there has never been any difference, so we say it is one reality with different names.

Since both this cause and this effect depend on conditions, they have no independent self-nature. Because they lack self-nature, their reality is not truly substantial, so we call it "one taste"—meaning they are equally unreal. This is what is meant by the true nature of arising.

Second, regarding "one taste": since this arising, being of dependent nature, has no real production, it is called the true nature of arising. That is, it is birthless and empty in nature. Because it is birthless, it is one taste.

Third, this dependent nature necessarily entails a discriminating nature. Since the discriminating nature is formless, and formlessness is the formless true nature, the formless true nature is one taste. Therefore, by these three meanings, we call it the true nature of arising.

Regarding the true nature of the two marks: this reveals the universal characteristic of all phenomena. It is the non-self of both persons and dharmas—the principle of the two emptinesses. This is called the universal characteristic of all phenomena, and it is also known as the true nature of characteristics.

The true nature of consciousness is realized when one understands that consciousness alone exists—there is no external world. Since no external world can be established, consciousness itself also cannot be established. This is because both the perceiving mind and the perceived object share the same quality: they are ultimately unattainable. This realization is what is meant by the true nature of consciousness.

The Four Reliances on True Suchness: What is meant is that suffering has the five aggregates as its essence. These five aggregates serve as the basis of reliance for sentient beings, who attach to them as self, person, sentient being, or life-span, and so are called "reliance." The Truth of Suffering has four aspects: suffering, impermanence, emptiness, and non-self. These four meanings are all free from error and are all called "true reality," which is reliance on True Suchness. Second, from here onward, the four aspects are all emptiness, having nothing that exists, and are all called "true reality," also relying on True Suchness.

"True Suchness of the Five Unwholesome Actions" refers to the truth of the origin of suffering (the noble truth of accumulation). The term "accumulation" has two meanings, which is why it is called True Suchness: first, the True Suchness of being free from distortion—this refers to the nature of giving rise to suffering. This nature is real and is therefore the True Suchness of accumulation. Second, both that which gives rise and that which is arisen have no inherent existence; because they are completely empty, this is therefore called the True Suchness of pervasive unwholesome actions.

The sixfold "Clear and Pure True Thusness" refers to the Truth of Cessation. It has two aspects: First, the True Thusness that is free from inversion—meaning the four virtues are all without distortion, hence called True Thusness. Second, the Truth of Cessation is not different from birth and death; both are the same Thusness, both devoid of any inherent existence. Therefore, it is called Clear and Pure True Thusness.

The true nature of the Seven Right Practices is what is called the Path of Truth. The Path is Prajna (wisdom). Prajna and ignorance are fundamentally opposed in nature, so the Path is the true reality free from error. Because the Path and afflictions share the same essence—both being empty of self and phenomena, both being one unified suchness—it is called the True Nature of Right Practice. It is also known as Suchness, Thusness, or Ultimate Reality; all these names apply.

Ten kinds of superior wisdom truly exist, meant to eliminate ten kinds of attachment to a self: 1. Attachment to oneness; 2. Attachment to a cause; 3. Attachment to a receiver; 4. Attachment to a doer; 5. Attachment to a sovereign self; 6. Attachment to an overseer; 7. Attachment to permanence; 8. Attachment to purity in what is impure; 9. Attachment to a cultivator; 10. Attachment to bondage and liberation.

Regarding the first, attachment to oneness: gathering all phenomena under a single name leads to the view of annihilation. Why? As the verse in the *Seven Entrances Treatise* says: like a collapsing riverbank that never returns to its original form, or a body in a cemetery that never comes back—only the senses and their objects remain, and this is called a "being." If sacred teachings say that, like a bird's path in the sky, traces may be seen, this refers to worldly outsiders who uphold the view of oneness, claiming that the body is the person, and when the body perishes, the self ceases—thus falling into annihilationism. To overturn this view, the five aggregates were established.

Superior wisdom has three aspects: multiplicity, aggregation, and distinction. The mind and form of the three times are all called aggregates—hence "multiplicity." Gathering together the mind and form of the three times under the single name "aggregate" is "aggregation." Form accumulation differs from feeling, and feeling accumulation differs from perception—hence "distinction." This is what is meant by the five aggregates. If one understands these three aspects of the five aggregates, there is no attachment to oneness.

The "three times" means: the past has already passed away, the future has not yet arisen, and the present does not abide. Yet all internal and external forms are equally called aggregates. These three aspects counter three kinds of ignorance: ignorance of oneness, ignorance of nominal designation, and ignorance of mixing things together.

Ignorance of oneness: For example, worldly outsiders claim that the body is a single thing, and that single thing is the self or person. Not knowing that there are only the five aggregates across the three times, they fall into annihilationism. This is conceiving a self within the aggregates—when the aggregates cease, the self perishes. Therefore, the Buddha taught that the five aggregates across the three times are many, not one, thereby breaking the attachment to oneness.

Ignorance of nominal designation: For example, outsiders like Ulūka hold that the body is composed of distinct parts, and then assert that there is a person separate from phenomena. This is conceiving a self apart from the aggregates, leading to eternalism. Why? Because if person and phenomena are distinct, they conclude that when the aggregates cease, the self remains. They fail to understand that the aggregates are gathered together and merely designated as "person"—a name without substance. Confused about this nominal designation, this is called ignorance of nominal designation. Therefore, the Buddha taught that the gathering of aggregates is merely a designation—its essence is emptiness—thereby breaking this attachment and removing ignorance of nominal designation.

Ignorance of mixing things together: For example, the Sarvāstivāda school holds that among the eightfold noble path, right thought and right view are both included within wisdom. Because they fail to distinguish the two, this attachment arises. Therefore, the Sautrāntika and Mahāyāna teachers explain: right thought, seeking to resolve a question not yet decided, still belongs to mental intention—and mental intention is mental action, so it is not included in wisdom. Only right view is truly wisdom. Generally speaking, all knowing and seeing that can penetrate and discern belongs to wisdom. The five aggregates are likewise—if one cannot distinguish feeling from perception, or perception from volition, and thinks feeling and perception are just one thing, one loses their distinct natures. This is called ignorance of mixing things together. Due to this ignorance, right view is lost; and losing right view, one cannot attain liberation. Therefore, the Buddha taught that the five aggregates have distinct natures, and that feeling, perception, and so forth are to be distinguished separately. This establishes both general and specific characteristics: specific characteristics give rise to direct insight, and general characteristics give rise to inferential insight.

問：五蘊如何能被根本真實所包含？

Answer: There are three kinds of form. First, discriminative form, which also includes meanings like long, short, large, small, square, and round—all of these belong to discriminative illusion, because they have no independent essence. Second, categorical form, meaning that each has its own category, such as effects arising from causes. With fire as the cause, it produces the category of fire. Since categories are similar, this is the arising of real entities from each other, belonging to dependent illusion—because the category is accomplished depending on causes, not through its own intrinsic power. Third, thusness form. If it is a discriminative illusion, it has no substance at all from the beginning, which is the emptiness of phenomena. If it is a dependent illusion, although it has substance, that substance is not real—it exists dependently—so there is also emptiness of phenomena. The essence of these two kinds of emptiness is itself real, so it is called thusness form, because it is the self-nature of such form. Using form to designate thusness—this is form within thusness—so it is called thusness form. Naming the end from the beginning, one can also name the beginning through the end. This reality is called the real illusion—the illusory substance is itself empty, so it is called real. The emptiness of illusion is thusness, and the mark of reality is also unobtainable. Since the form aggregate is itself three illusions and is encompassed by the three illusions, the other four aggregates—feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness—naturally follow the same principle and are also encompassed by the three illusions. Experiencing suffering or pleasure is discriminative illusion; the substance of discrimination arises from causes and conditions, having causes and effects, which is dependent illusion. Thusness is called the real illusion. If one can distinguish general and specific characteristics, this mind is perception; if one receives suffering or pleasure without grasping at distinctions, it is called feeling.

Two kinds of attachment are "grasping at a self." To break this attachment, the "Eighteen Elements" are taught as supreme wisdom. Various non-Buddhist teachers universally claim that all things arise because of a self, which is called "grasping at a self as the cause." They assert that the self has nine aspects: awareness, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, effort, memory, merit, and demerit. The self is eternally existing; from it arise merit and demerit. Merit and demerit cause the mind to unite with the self. Through this union, awareness arises; from awareness comes pleasure; from pleasure comes pain; from pleasure arises desire; from pain arises aversion. Desiring pleasure, one rejects pain and cultivates effort; through effort comes right mindfulness. Seeking liberation, one must eliminate merit and demerit. If merit and demerit do not arise, there is no awareness; without awareness, there is no pleasure or pain, and so on. If one seeks liberation, one should cultivate four practices: first, truthful speech, which is keeping precepts; second, giving; third, ascetic discipline; fourth, meditative concentration. By cultivating these four righteous practices, one is born in good realms, where there is pleasure, and pleasure brings wisdom. Wisdom brings aversion to merit and demerit, and through that aversion one attains liberation.

The Mahayana refutes this, saying: If you claim that the self exists first and merit and demerit do not yet exist, and later arise without any cause, then liberation would be the same. Once liberation is attained, merit and demerit should also arise again without any cause — in which case there would never be a time of final liberation.

"Element" means "seed." One's own distinct type is called a seed. A seed also has a single meaning — since its type is uniform — but when the results are distinguished, they become the Eighteen Elements. The seeds are of three kinds: first, the grasper; second, the grasped; third, the act of grasping. The six sense faculties — eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind — are seeds that grasp; they are called "own-type seeds," meaning they give rise to results. Depending on the superiority or inferiority of causes and conditions, the results differ in quality. Because of past craving for the six sense objects, actions perfume the *ālaya* consciousness. Since this craving is one single thing, it is called "one seed." This one seed produces the six different sense faculties as results; hence the teaching of six causes. When it is said that the faculties "grasp," since the faculties as present actualities are not mental phenomena, they cannot truly grasp. But because non-Buddhists claim that within the faculties there is a separate person who grasps, it is taught conventionally that the faculties are the graspers.

The six sense objects — form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and mental objects — are the grasped seeds. They arise from their own seeds, which is why it is said that from past craving, since the inner faculties desire to use external objects, craving for the faculties and craving for the objects arise together. Also, because of craving for the six objects, the six faculties exist; and the craving for objects produces the six faculties. The six consciousnesses are the seeds of grasping, arising from craving for inner faculties and outer objects. These eighteen are called "elements" because of their causal nature; "element" means seed.

Conventionally, this "element" is explained in three senses: first, the agent; second, the object; third, the act. To refute Kojṛi's view from his non-Buddhist days, where he claimed the self is the agent, the Buddha skillfully taught conventionally that the eyes and other faculties are the agents. He countered the idea that these faculties are the self working, and further refuted the notion of a single self by showing that apart from the faculties there is no separate self — the faculties arise from causes and conditions and are only conventionally called agents, not actually so.

The six sense objects are conventionally called "the acted upon." This refutes the Sāṃkhya school's two eternal selves: one is the knowing self, which is eternal; being eternal, it cannot act. The other is the unknowing self, which is all things. The knowing self uses primordial nature to accomplish cognition — not an effect. The Buddha thus conventionally calls the six objects "acted upon." Since there is no real agent, the objects too are not truly acted upon — hence they are only conventionally designated.

The six consciousnesses are the "act." This refutes two extreme views: First, the view that all things are caused by the self's intention, which is the error of exaggeration. Second, the wrong view that the self is eternal, and since the self is eternal, all things are also eternal. Since both are eternal, nothing can be an agent or an object — this is the error of denial. To avoid both extremes, the six consciousnesses are conventionally called the "act." Without the faculties and objects as conditions, there is no act; without faculties and objects, there is no consciousness either. Why? Because consciousness must depend on both a faculty and an object to arise. Thus there is no "non-act." It is precisely to break the three kinds of ignorance — agent, object, and act — held by non-Buddhists, that these three senses are established. To reveal that seeds have grasping, grasped, and so on, the Eighteen Elements are taught. If one understands that the Eighteen Elements arise from four conditions, one will no longer grasp at a self as the cause of things.

The faculties are called "agents" in two senses: first, they generate consciousness; second, they serve as conditions for the sense objects. The objects are called "acted upon": they act as conditions for the faculties and as the support for consciousness. Consciousness is the "act" — it means arising, having activity, and being an element, rooted in ultimate reality. The eye has three aspects: first, the discriminating eye; second, the type-eye; third, the suchness-eye — likewise for the other faculties, including the distinction between active and inactive, as explained in the Five Aggregates.

To break attachment to the idea of a creator, the twelve links of dependent origination are explained as cause and effect. These three aspects—cause, effect, and the events themselves—are complete without addition or reduction.

What do “addition” and “reduction” mean here? Take the eleven links from mental formations onward: if one were to posit an unequal cause for them, that would be addition. Why? Because it means treating what is impermanent as having a permanent cause, which is unequal. For example, the Sāṃkhya school posits an ignorant self as the cause; the Vaiśeṣika school posits a permanent self as the cause, or claims that an eternal lord performs actions. In all these cases, a permanent cause is said to produce impermanent effects—cause and effect are then dissimilar, so this is called “unequal cause.”

Logically speaking, impermanent effects naturally arise from ignorance as their cause. When others claim a permanent cause exists, that is an overstatement of the cause. As for understating the cause: the Nirgrantha school and similar outsiders say that all things arise naturally, with no causes or conditions. What truly exists is denied, so this is called “understating the cause.”

As for overstating the effect: the Sāṃkhya school holds that the effect is already present in the cause—though the effect exists inherently, the cause merely reveals it. Since the effect is said to pre-exist, it would not truly arise from the cause. But in reality, it is only through the gathering of causes and conditions that this effect comes to be. Their claim that it pre-exists is thus “overstating the effect.”

Understating the effect: the nihilist school claims that all deeds yield results but denies future rebirth. Results truly exist, and future birth truly exists, yet they falsely assert these do not—so this is “understating the effect.”

Overstating the events: the school of the eternal lord claims that all events arise from its will or mind. For instance, they say ignorance itself contains a distinct volitional impulse that produces mental formations. But in reality, ignorance has no such separate impulse that generates mental formations. Likewise, the Vaiśeṣika school claims that apart from the substance of things there is a distinct activity, such as motion. They speak of five kinds of activity—up, down, bending, stretching, and so on—and take motion to be a separate essence. But beyond the substance itself, no such separate activity truly exists. Their false assertion of it is “overstating the events.”

Understating the events: some outsiders claim that ignorance has no power to produce mental formations—whether ignorance exists or not, mental formations arise naturally, so ignorance is powerless. But if one understands that the twelve limbs arise in sequence, each supporting the next, one can abandon these six kinds of mistaken views concerning cause, effect, and events.

In brief, the meaning of cause and effect among the twelve limbs has three aspects: first, showing impermanence; second, showing there is no separate agent of activity; third, clarifying the nature and characteristics of cause and effect.

If the mind were permanent, there would be no cause and effect. Because the mind is impermanent, the principle of cause and effect stands. If one claimed there were a separate agent of activity, then the cause would have to deliberately produce the effect, and the effect would have to deliberately arise from the cause—this would make things self-determining, not dependent on other conditions. In truth, arising is dependent: the cause relies on the effect, and the effect relies on the cause—they mutually require each other. Both are dependent, so they are conventional and lack any fixed essence.

If cause and effect were not similar, the whole principle would collapse. For example, a bean does not produce wheat, because it is not its cause—they do not give rise to each other. If an effect did not resemble its cause, then doing evil would lead to heaven, doing good would lead to hell—even worldly attachments would bring liberation, and renunciation would only deepen samsara. Therefore, impermanence gives rise to impermanence—this follows naturally from reason, with no need to posit a separate agent of activity.

This mutual resemblance of cause and effect is what defines the twelve limbs. This teaching serves to overcome three kinds of defilements: craving, the view of self, and ignorance.

Within the nature of these twelve limbs, the parts that are results should be seen as objects of renunciation, to overcome craving and reveal the liberation gate of wishlessness. The parts that are causes serve to break the view of self, showing that results arise from causes—not from a permanent self—and revealing the liberation gate of emptiness. Ignorance itself reveals ignorance: when one understands that all actions arise from ignorance, the dark mind of ignorance is extinguished. Ignorance is the basis of the four types of false views; breaking this ignorance reveals the liberation gate of signlessness.

If one sees the twelve limbs as neither increased nor decreased, one removes the view of self and lets go of attachment to a creator—for the twelve limbs directly counteract this attachment.

As for the threefold inclusion: ignorance has three aspects. First, what is revealed through discrimination—this is the conventional designation. Second, the principle of cause and effect—this is the dependent designation. Both are ultimately without substance—this is the true designation. Since this holds for the single limb of ignorance, the same applies to the remaining eleven limbs, such as mental formations—no further explanation is needed.

Treatise on the Eighteen Emptinesses, One Fascicle