第四體性不同。復分為二。初彰異計。後顯大乘。彰異計中。復分為二。初彰外道。後彰小乘彰外道者。大類外道別有六計。一數論．二勝論．三明論．四聲顯論．五聲生論．六順世論。數論。教體說有二種。依本教法。體即自性三德為體。依末教法。五唯量中聲為教體。本唯是常。末是無常。然是轉變非為滅壞滅壞之時即歸本故。其勝論師。以諸德中聲為教體。無常無礙。其明論者。婆羅門等執吠陀論聲唯是常。不取聲性。非能詮故。其能詮聲詮於明論所詮之義。此教是常所詮定故。餘一切教皆無常聲以為教體。不說聲論別有名等。以說名等即是聲故。聲顯論者。聲體本有。待緣顯之。體性常住。此計有二。一者隨一一物各各有一能詮常聲。猶如非擇滅。以尋伺等所發音顯。音是無常。今用眾多常聲為體。二者一切法上但共有一能詮常聲。猶如真如。以尋伺等所發音顯。此音無常。今者唯取一常聲為體。其音響等但是顯緣。非能詮體。此二之中。各有二種。一計全分。內外諸聲皆是常住。二計一分。內聲是常。外聲無常。非能詮故。猶如音響。故聲顯論總束為四。計一計多各通內外。其聲生論計。聲本無待緣生之。生已常住。由音響等所發生故。此計有二。一計體多。猶如非擇滅。二計體一。猶若真如。音響生緣體無常法。今取新生常聲為體。以能詮故。響非能詮。此各有二。一計全分。二計一分。准前應知。還束為四。計一計多。各通內外。聲顯．聲生各有四種。順世外道。一切皆四大故。以常四大為體。合勝．數論．并明論聲。總有十二外道教體。彰小乘者。大類小乘教體有六。一大眾部等。二一說部。三多聞部。四說假部。五說一切有部。六經量部。其大乘部．說出世部．鷄胤部三部同說。佛一切法皆是無漏。皆是出世。佛所出言無不如義。佛一切語皆轉法輪。佛一切時不說名等。常在定故。然諸有情謂說名等。即是無思成自事義。以其無漏體是實有聲．名．句等為其教體。其一說部。說一切法體非實有唯有假名。今取無漏假聲名等以為教體。多聞部說。如來五音是出世教。一無常．二苦．三空．四無我．五涅槃寂靜。以此五種決定能引出離道故。如來餘音是世間教。與五俱起亦是出世。設引出離道。不與五相應。不決定故。非出世教。論說言音。音即音聲。故但取聲。不說名等。故佛諸教通以有漏無漏之聲而為其體。以佛五音是無漏故。其說假部。聲名句等。若在處等體非實有。以說依．緣有積聚故。若在蘊等聲等便實。雖有積聚不說依．緣。以名蘊故。聲．名．句等既通蘊等。故通有漏無漏假實以為教體。說一切有部說。教體者。有說。唯以名．句．文三而為教體。有詮表故。有說但以善聲為體。三無數劫所勤求故。名等無記故不取之。評家評取唯有漏善聲以為教體。勤求起故。其經量部說。名等假聲體實有。雖彼不立不相應行。仍不取聲。無詮表故。取有漏聲上假屈曲能詮以為體性。然聲處收。前熏於後展轉聚集無過未故。如是合說小乘有六。總是第一彰異計也。
**Part Four: The Different Entities (Nature of the Teaching's Substance)**
This section is further divided into two parts. First, we will outline the different philosophical schools, and second, we will reveal the Great Vehicle (Mahayana) perspective.
**Part 1: Outlining the Different Schools**
This, in turn, has two divisions. First, we will discuss the Non-Buddhist schools, and then the Lesser Vehicle (Hinayana) schools.
**Section A: Non-Buddhist Schools**
Broadly speaking, the major non-Buddhist schools can be grouped into six distinct views:
1. The Sāṃkhya (Number) School 2. The Vaiśeṣika (Particular) School 3. The Vedic (Mīmāṃsā) School 4. The Sound-Revelation (Śabda-nitya) School 5. The Sound-Origination (Śabda-utpatti) School 6. The Materialist (Lokāyata/Cārvāka) School
1. **Sāṃkhya**: This school's ultimate principle (pradhāna) is said to have two forms. Its foundational teaching is based on the *prakṛti* (primordial nature) composed of the three *guṇas* (qualities). Its derived teaching is based on sound as one of the five subtle elements (*tanmātras*). The foundational is eternal, while the derived is impermanent. However, this is a matter of transformation, not annihilation, as it returns to its source at the end. 2. **Vaiśeṣika**: This school takes sound as one of the qualities (*guṇas*), which is impermanent and unobstructed. 3. **Vedic (Mīmāṃsā)**: The Brahmins who follow the Vedas hold that the sound of the Vedas is eternal. They do not take sound as a universal quality, because it is not the primary signifier. The signifying sound (speech) expresses the meaning of the Vedic text. Since the meaning is fixed, this teaching is eternal. Other teachings, based on non-eternal sound, have different ultimate principles. They do not posit a separate reality for "names" or "words," as these are identical to the sounds themselves. 4. **Sound-Revelation (Śabda-nitya)**: This school believes sound-principles exist inherently and are revealed through conditions. They are eternal. This view has two main branches: * **The Multiplicity View** (*aneka*): Each individual object has its own unique, eternal sound that can be articulated, like a non-selective cessation. The sound emitted by speech or mind is impermanent, but the collection of eternal sounds is the ultimate principle. * **The Unity View** (*eka*): All phenomena share one single, eternal sound, like the ultimate reality (*tathatā*). The sound emitted by speech is impermanent, but the one eternal sound is the principle. The sounds and echoes are merely conditions for revelation, not the true signifier.
Each of these two branches can be further divided into two: the *Full Account* (*sarvāṃśa*), where all sounds (internal and external) are considered eternal, and the *Partial Account* (*ekadeśa*), where only inner sounds are eternal and outer sounds are impermanent, as they cannot signify.
Therefore, this school's theories can be summarized into four categories: unity or multiplicity, each applied to both internal and external sounds.
5. **Sound-Origination (Śabda-utpatti)**: This school believes sounds originate from conditions, but they are eternal once they arise. They are brought into being by sounds and echoes. This view also has two branches: * **The Multiplicity View** (*aneka*), like a non-selective cessation. * **The Unity View** (*eka*), like the ultimate reality (*tathatā*). The sound-echo condition is impermanent, but the newly created, eternal sound is the principle, because it signifies. Echoes do not signify.
Again, this is divided into the Full and Partial accounts, similar to the previous school. This also totals four categories: unity or multiplicity, applied to both internal and external sounds.
Thus, the Sound-Revelation and Sound-Origination schools each have four sub-varieties.
6. **Materialist (Lokāyata/Cārvāka)**: This school holds that everything is composed of the four great elements. Thus, the eternal elements themselves are the principle.
When we combine the schools of Vaiśeṣika, Sāṃkhya, and the Vedic sound with the others, there are a total of twelve different non-Buddhist views on the nature of a teaching's substance.
**Section B: Lesser Vehicle (Hinayana) Schools**
There are six major Lesser Vehicle schools concerning the nature of the teaching's substance:
1. The Mahāsāṅghika (Great Assembly) School and its allied schools. 2. The Ekavyāvahārika (One-Speech) School. 3. The Bahuśrutīya (Much-Hearing) School. 4. The Prajñaptivāda (Designation) School. 5. The Sarvāstivāda (All-Exists) School. 6. The Sautrāntika (Sūtra) School.
1. **Mahāsāṅghika, Lokottaravāda, and Kauṇḍinya (Goat-Progeny) School**: These schools agree that all of the Buddha's teachings are uncontaminated (*anāsrava*) and supramundane (*lokottara*). Everything the Buddha said is perfectly true. Every word he spoke turns the Wheel of Dharma. Since he is always in samādhi, he never actually speaks in terms of concepts or names. Beings perceive him as doing so, which is a function of their own minds. Therefore, the *ultimate principle* is the actual, ultimately real, uncontaminated sound, names, words, and sentences.
2. **Ekavyāvahārika (One-Speech) School**: This school says all phenomena are not ultimately real; they are only nominal designations (*prajñapti*). Therefore, the teaching's substance is the uncontaminated, nominal sound and names.
3. **Bahuśrutīya (Much-Hearing) School**: This school distinguishes the Buddha's five supramundane sounds—impermanence, suffering, emptiness, non-self, and nirvāṇa—as the supramundane teaching. These five decisively lead to the path of liberation. All other sounds of the Tathāgata are mundane teaching. Sounds arising together with these five are also supramundane. Sounds that do not correspond with these five are not decisive and thus not supramundane. For them, the teaching is primarily about sound (sound waves), not names or words. Thus, both uncontaminated (the five sounds) and contaminated sound serve as the teaching's substance.
4. **Prajñaptivāda (Designation) School**: This school believes that sounds, names, and sentences are not ultimately real when they arise from dependent causes. In the aggregates (*skandhas*), these sounds, etc., are considered real. They posit that sounds, names, and sentences are included within the aggregates. Therefore, the teaching's substance can be both contaminated and uncontaminated, conventional and ultimately real.
5. **Sarvāstivāda (All-Exists) School**: Two main views exist within this school. * Some say the teaching's substance consists only of names, words, and sentences because they are conventional signs. * Others say it consists only of wholesome sound, because it is the goal of intense effort over three countless eons. Names and words, being morally neutral (*avyākṛta*), are not taken as the principle.
The authoritative commentator (*Vibhāṣā*) concluded that only contaminated, wholesome sound is the teaching's substance because it is the result of diligent effort.
6. **Sautrāntika (Sūtra) School**: This school holds that names, etc., are conventional (*prajñapti*) and sound is ultimately real. Although they do not accept a "dissociated" mental factor (*viprayuktasamskāra*), they still do not take sound as the signifier. They posit that the word-sounds (*vyañjana*) are the signifier and are ultimately real, but as a form (*rūpa*) perceived by the auditory faculty. These sounds accumulate continuously, and since there is no past or future moment, the teaching's substance is the continuum of these conventional sound-patterns that signify meaning.
Thus, there are six total schools within the Lesser Vehicle. This concludes the first major section on outlining the different philosophical schools.
顯大乘中。復分為二。初顯邊體。後顯中道。顯邊體者。龍猛．清辨咸作是言。勝義諦中一切無相諸法皆空。何教何為體。世俗諦中可亦說有。句．言章．論聲為教體。梵云鉢陀此翻為跡。當古之句。句有二種。一集法滿足句。二顯義周圓句。如說不生亦不滅。不來亦不去。不一亦不異。不常亦不斷。此一一句義雖未圓。亦名為句。法滿足故。此當中道所說名也。梵云縛(去聲)迦。此云言也。此當中道所說句也。義周圓故。梵云鉢剌迦羅。此云章也。章即章段。一章一段以明諸義。此無所當。梵云奢薩呾羅。此翻為論。總周一部立以論名。此四能詮聲為教體。此准般若燈論所說。更應勘彼智度論文。
In explaining the Great Vehicle (Mahayana), we further divide it into two parts: first, explaining the nature of the extremes; second, explaining the Middle Way.
Regarding the nature of the extremes, Nagarjuna and Bhavaviveka both state: From the perspective of ultimate truth, all phenomena are without characteristics and all dharmas are empty. So what teaching could serve as the basis? In terms of conventional truth, we can say that sounds—words, phrases, chapters, and treatises—constitute the substance of the teaching.
The Sanskrit word *pada* is translated as "trace" and corresponds to what was anciently called a "line" (phrase). There are two kinds of phrases: first, a phrase that completes the statement of a principle; second, a phrase that fully expresses the meaning. For example, saying "neither arising nor ceasing, neither coming nor going, neither one nor different, neither permanent nor impermanent" — even though each line's meaning is not fully complete, they are still called phrases because the principles are complete. These correspond to what the Middle Way teaches as names.
The Sanskrit word *vāk* (pronounced with a departing tone) means "speech." This corresponds to what the Middle Way teaches as sentences, as the meaning is fully expressed.
The Sanskrit word *prakaraṇa* means "chapter." A chapter is a section—one chapter or section to clarify various principles. This has no specific counterpart here.
The Sanskrit word *śāstra* is translated as "treatise." It encompasses the entire work and is named as a treatise. These four means of expression use sound as the substance of the teaching.
This interpretation follows what is stated in the *Prajñāpradīpa* (Lamp of Wisdom). One should also consult the corresponding discussion in the *Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra*.
顯中道者。瑜伽論攝決擇分八十一卷說。經體有二。一文。二義。文是所依。義即能依。由能詮文義得顯故。能詮文中復分為二。一者龍軍論師．無性菩薩．及佛地論一師所說。且無性云。此中即是隨墮八時。聞者識上直非直說。聚集顯現以為體性。此意即取隨世俗說日夜八時。說花嚴經八會之時。詮辨諸法八轉聲時。聞法者識所變聲等直非直說。以為教體。佛地論云。謂佛慈悲本願緣力。其可聞者自意識上。文義相生似如來說。此意即是由佛本願為增上緣。令聞者識有文義相。此文義相。雖自親依善根力起。而就本緣名為佛說。佛實無言。故無性云。若爾云何菩薩能說。彼增上生故作是說。譬如天等增上力故令於夢中得論呪等。若離識者佛云何說。此就本緣佛不說法。乃無文義。唯有無漏大定．智．悲。若依聞者自識所變。有漏心現。即似無漏聲名句文以為教體。無漏心現。即真無漏文義為體。此即如來實不說法。故大波若第四百二十五卷．文殊問經．涅槃經等。皆作是言。我成道來不說一字。汝亦不聞．十地亦言三界唯識。故知教體唯心所變文義為性。善順契經。不違唯識。問何故佛寶即有本佛。今說法寶即唯心變。答教法戲論唯說自心。餘非戲論故取本質。理．行．果法同佛寶故。無垢稱經言。法非見聞覺知。若行見聞覺知。即是見聞覺知。非求法也。故唯心變。問若取佛說義即可然。若聞者心所變為教。子細研究。於理實難。過去．未來既非實有。非有為法生已便住。如何識上聚集解生。答無性解云。隨墮八時聞者識上。直非直說聚集顯現。以為體性。謂八時中聞者識上。有直非直二種言說。聚集顯現故。瑜伽說心略有五種。一率爾．二尋求．三決定．四染淨．五等流。如五心章自當廣釋。如聖教說諸行無常。有起盡法。如言諸字率爾心已。必起尋求續初心起。雖多剎那行解唯一。總名尋求。未決定知諸所目故。如瑜伽論第三卷說。又一剎那五識生已。從此無間必意生故。復言行時由先熏習連帶解生有三心現。謂率爾亦尋求及後決定。決定知諸目一切行。故瑜伽說。尋求無間若不散亂決定心生。若散亂時生即不定。雖知自性然未知義。為令了知復說無字。於此時中有先三心。於無字上但有其二。謂率爾．尋求。未決定知無所無故。即從決定後却起尋求。論但定說率爾尋求定無間生。尋求已後許散亂故。復言常時五心竝具。其義可解。由前字力展轉熏習連後字生。於最後時始能解義。染淨等心方乃得轉。故雖無過．未。而教體亦成。若新新解竝有率爾。四字之上皆定有二心。謂率爾．尋求。即於末後有十二心一時聚集。第一有二。第二有三。第三有二。第四有五。故成十二。既於初字有率爾．尋求。於第二字新生決定。并前為三。第三字中却起尋求。并前為四。第四字時但新決定．染淨．等流三心而起。合有七心一時聚集。如是方名五心具足。故唯識教其體理成。勘對法第一疏應具廣之。二者護法．勝子．親光等說。凡論出體總有四重。一攝相歸性體。即一切法皆性真如。故大波若經理趣分說。一切有情皆如來藏。勝鬘經說。夫生死者是如來藏。無垢稱言。一切眾生皆如也。一切法亦如也。眾賢聖亦如也。至於彌勒亦如也。諸經論說如是非一。一切有為諸無為等有別體法是如之相。譬如海水隨風等緣擊成波相。此波之體豈異水乎。一切諸法隨四緣會成其體相。然不離如。有漏種子性皆本識亦復如是。故皆無記。二攝境從識體。即一切法皆是唯識。花嚴等說三界唯心。心所從王名唯識等。如是等文誠證非一。三攝假隨實體。即諸假法隨何所依實法為體。如說瓶等四塵為體。諸不相應色心分位。即以所依分位為體。對法論說不相應．行色心等中是假立。故是說不害等即無瞋等。此類非一。四性用別論體。色心假實各別處故。瑜伽等說。色蘊攝彼十處界等。此類眾多。又有四重。一真如。二無相。三唯識。四因緣。此二四體攝法義周。隨其所應釋一切法。今隨義便略敘明之。庶後學徒詳而易入。護法等說。諸教體者。謂宜聞者本願緣力。如來識上文義相生。實能所詮文義為體。此師意說。眾生本願願聞佛說。如來識上文義相生。聽者識心即聞佛說。亦有如是似文義相。故升攝波葉喻經說。佛取樹葉以問阿難。比其林葉所有多少。復告慶喜。我未所說乃有爾所。故諸經首佛皆教置如是我聞。二十唯識天親說云。展轉增上力。二識成決定。謂餘相續識差別故。令餘相續差別識生。展轉互為增上緣故。是故世尊實亦說法。言不說者是密意說。於真如性絕語言故。實無諸事。故波若云。音聲尋我不見如來。推功歸本。仍言應化非說法者。計所執中無說法故。於依他起譬如幻人為幻人說。唯有假說似能說者。都無實說。聽者心識文義之相。理有無疑。故諸教體取本無漏世尊所說文義為體。若取能詮。唯聲名等而為體性。十地論說。說者聽者俱以二事而得究竟。一者聲。二者善字。又解深密經．及瑜伽論七十八說。於第九地斷二種愚。一於無量所說法。無量名句字。陀羅尼自在愚。成唯識論第九卷言。無量名句字者。謂法無礙解。所說法者所詮義也。名句字者能詮文也。對法等云。成所引聲者。謂諸聖所說聲。成唯識論第二復言。由此法．詞二無礙解。境有差別。法緣名等。詞緣於聲。金剛波若天親論說。又言無記者。此義不然。何以故。汝法是無記。而我法是記。是故一法寶勝無量珍寶。是故當知。詮表教體唯聲名等體唯無漏。亦唯是善。此通依他及圓成實。從眾緣起名曰依他。體是無漏可通成實。佛地論說。依隨轉門及二乘者。說十五界唯是有漏名．句．文身唯是無記。今依大乘。若唯如來後得說法聲．名．句．文。真善無漏。如前所解諸教中說。故佛地論．成唯識。說十八界皆通有漏及無漏。若十地菩薩二乘說法聲．名．句．文。唯是有漏。若聽者識所變文義。或通有漏及與無漏。一切異生．二乘菩薩七地已前有漏後得。能聽法者皆唯有漏。若一切二乘．七地已前無漏後得．八地已去。識上所變聲．名．句．文。皆唯無漏。隨其所應說之為教。然同所敬既取本質無漏三寶故。今教體亦取本質佛等所說任運而現。非有漏戲論聲等為體。攝大乘云。如末尼天鼓無思成自事。聲等為體。於能說者識上現故不違唯識。若聞者識所變為教。教唯有漏三性為體。同識性故。依前所說四出體中。今出教體亦．應有四。依前第一攝相歸性。教即真如。般若論說。應化非真佛。亦非說法者。說法不二取。無說離言相。故知教體性即真如。無垢稱語大善現言。文字性離無有文字。是即解脫。解脫相者即諸法也。又云一切法亦如也。又云法非見聞覺知。若行見聞覺知。是即見聞覺知。非求法也。故知教體性即真如。依前第二攝境從識。若取根本能說法者識心為體。若取於末。能聞法者識心為體。故天親云。展轉增上力。二識成決定。依前第三攝假隨實。一切內教體唯是聲。由名句文體是假有隨實說故。對法論說。成所引聲不說名等名成所引。依前第四相用別論。唯取根本能說法者識上所現聲名句文以為教體。假之與實義用殊故。十地論云。一者聲。二善字。如前教理成此體訖。此中四體約義用分。不乖真俗法相理故。雖說一體義不違三。即一一法各各有此四種體。故說諸法體。准此應知。雖顯教體義有多途。而未解釋唯識教性。如何說者識上聚集。令聽法者聚集解生。顯揚論中第十二說。有字非名謂一字。有名非句。謂一字名。句必有名字。名亦必有字。字不必有名。名不必有句。既大乘中於聲屈曲義說名等。故說名等。非小乘義。今准此義。釋說法者及聽法者識心之上聚集顯現。如聖教說諸惡者莫作。諸善者奉行。善調伏自心。是諸佛聖教。說諸字時。餘惡等字並在未來。唯有一字及依一字所成之名於心上現。此即一字成名之義。亦有一字不成名者。非此所明。復言惡時。餘者等字並在未來。其前諸字雖入過去現無本質。由熏習力唯識變力。仍於此念說惡字時心上顯現。即有二个一字。一个字身。兩个一字所成名。一个一字所成名．名身。一个二字所成名。又言者時有三个一字。兩个字身 一謂諸惡。二謂惡者。以二合說。下應准知。不可隔越合。故無諸者合名字身一个三字多字身。三个一字所成名。二个一字所成名名身 如前字身二二合說 一个一字所成名多名身 論雖二說今取三字名名多名身。不取四字者下准應知 兩个二字所成名 亦二二合說一个二字所成名名身。一个三字所成名復言莫時有四个一字。三个字身 亦二二合說準前應知 兩个三字多字身 三三合說。更互除初後一字 一个四字多字身。四个一字所成名。三个一字所成名．名身謂二二合說 二个一字所成名三名多名身謂三三合。說更互除初後一字 一个一字所成名四名多名身。三个二字所成名 謂二二合說 二个二字所成名名身。一个二字所成名多名身．二个三字所成名 更互除初後一字如前准說 一个三字所成名名身。一个四字所成名。又言作時有五个一字。四个字身 謂二二合說 三个三字多字身。二个四字多字身。一个五字多字身至此總合字及字身并多字身有一十五五个一字所成名。四个一字所成名名身謂二二合說 三个一字所成名三名多名身謂三三合說 二个一字所成名四名多名身更互除初後一字 一个一字所成名五名多名身。四个二字所成名謂二二。合說三个二字所成名名身。二个二字所成名三名多名身 一个二字所成名四名多名身。三个三字所成名 謂三三合說 二个三字所成名名身．一个三字所成名多名身。二个四字所成名 更互除初後一字 一个四字所成名名身。一个五字所成名 至此總合名及名身并多名身有三十五合有一句。義究竟故。梵云阿耨瑟多掣陀。即八字成句。不長不短。以圓滿故。此中皆取無間相合方成名等。不可隔越合成名等。所隔之字即無用故。此中且依倍倍增長而作其法。合有五剎那所依之聲。於心上現。不可為難。此依一句事究竟說。字．名．句．聲。都合尚有五十聚集。若約一頌．一段．一卷．一部聚集字名句等。理即無邊。若薩婆多等說惡等字時。諸等字已滅。無聚集故。次第而生。不俱時故。無熏習故。不可至後。前已所說字。於後心上現。故彼教義決定不成。亦非由前字等勢力。末後字等能生顯名。過去無體。又無熏習。由何勢力。末後之字能生顯名等。故我今時。其說法者若在因位。及諸聽者亦在因中。由初諸字等熏本識已。連帶緣後惡者等字。識上解生。乃至末後作字之時。先皆聚集。由前熏習後識之上聚集顯現。詮所詮義差別圓滿。名為說法。說為聞教。若是佛說。雖無熏習亦聚集生。故雖無過未唯識教成立。說者．聽者義皆圓滿。俱以聲．字二種。究竟於自心上聚集顯現。為教體故。於此四種出體之中。隨其所應。以圓成等及相名等三性五法各別出之。唯大乘義。大乘義中。雖有蘊處．界等三科之法。體性易故復濫小教。故不取之。三性體性略而言之。遍計所執體唯我法。性相都無。依他．圓成各有二體。一者有漏無漏門。諸無漏法皆名圓成。故攝論說。若說四清淨是即圓成實。諸有漏法皆依他起。二者常無常門。諸常住者名圓成實。即唯真如圓成實攝。瑜伽論說。五法之中唯說真如是圓成。故一切有為皆依他起。依他眾緣而得起故。其前教體攝相歸性唯圓成實。自餘三體可通二說。無漏有為通二性故。五法體性如五法章。義准應悉。餘一切章由此門中。已略顯示更不別顯。准義知之此中所說義理研尋。皆是大師別加訓授。傳者實雖文拙。而此義或可觀。冀諸有智委為詳審。其間引證純用大乘。白日光暉不假眾星之助故也。如有謬錯。希為箴規。上來合是體性不同。自餘義門如餘章說。
To reveal the Middle Way, the *Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra*, in its *Vinirṇaya-saṃgrahaṇī* (Chapter 81), states that the essence of scripture has two aspects: (1) **Letters/Words**, and (2) **Meanings**. Words are the foundation, and meaning is what is founded. Meanings become evident through the words that express them.
Expanding on this, the words themselves can be further divided. One approach is taken by Ārya Nāgārjuna, Asaṅga, and the author of the *Buddhabhūmi Śāstra*. Asaṅga says: This refers to the direct and indirect speech that appears, gathered as a collection, on the listener's consciousness at **eight specific times** (the eight divisions of day and night in worldly convention, the eight assemblies where the *Avataṃsaka Sūtra* was taught, or the eight cases of Sanskrit grammar). This meaning takes the sounds of speech (direct and indirect) transformed by the listener's consciousness as the essence of the teaching.
The *Buddhabhūmi Śāstra* says: Through the power of the Buddha's compassion and his original vows, meanings and words arise on the listener's own consciousness, appearing as if spoken by the Tathāgata. This means that the Buddha's original vows serve as the predominant condition, causing the meaning and words to arise on the listener's consciousness. Although these meanings and words arise based on their own latent powers (roots of virtue), traced back to their primary cause, they are called "Buddha's teaching." In reality, the Buddha is speechless. Asaṅga asks: If so, how can a Bodhisattva speak? He explains: It is done through the power of that (Buddha's vow) as the predominant condition, just as the power of celestial beings can cause one to receive mantras in a dream.
If there were no consciousness, how could the Buddha speak? Tracing back to the primary cause, the Buddha does not teach. There are no words or meanings; there is only the state of undefiled great concentration, wisdom, and compassion. When seen from the listener's own transformed consciousness, it appears as a conditioned mind and its objects, which becomes the essence of teaching, appearing like undefiled sounds, names, phrases, and letters. When seen from the undefiled mind, the real undefiled words and meanings are the essence. So, the Tathāgata never actually preaches a teaching. Thus, the *Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra* (ch. 425), the *Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā Sūtra*, the *Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra*, and others all say: "Since I attained enlightenment, I have not uttered a single word, and you have not heard a thing." The *Daśabhūmika Sūtra* also says the triple world is only consciousness. Therefore, we know that the essence of the teaching is nothing but the words and meanings transformed by the mind. This aligns well with the sūtras and does not contradict the principle of "consciousness-only."
**Question:** Why is the Buddha Jewel the original, fundamental Buddha, but now we say the Dharma Jewel is only mind-transformed?
**Answer:** The Dharma of verbal teachings is a mental construction, merely talking about one's own mind. The remaining (truths, practices, fruits) are not such mental constructions; thus, they are taken as the fundamental reality (the Buddha's speech). The principles, practices, and results are of the same nature as the Buddha Jewel. The *Vimalakīrti Sūtra* says: "The Dharma is not seen, heard, or known. If one approaches it through seeing, hearing, or knowing, then that is precisely seeing, hearing, and knowing, not seeking the Dharma." Therefore, it is only mind-transformed.
**Question:** If we take the Buddha's actual speech, the matter is fine. But if we take the listener's mind-transformed teaching as the basis, careful examination reveals a solid difficulty. The past and future are not real existents. Conditioned things do not continue to exist after arising. How can a collection (of letters) be perceived, leading to understanding, on the consciousness?
**Answer:** Asaṅga explains: "Appearing, gathered as a collection, on the listener's consciousness at eight specific times" means that at each of the eight times, there are two kinds of speech (direct and indirect), appearing gathered on the listener's consciousness. The *Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra* says that the mind has five states: 1. Impulsive (first perception), 2. Investigating, 3. Deciding, 4. Defiled/Pure, and 5. Habitual continuity. This will be explained in the chapter on the five minds. For example, the sacred teaching says: "All conditioned things are impermanent, subject to arising and cessation." When the letter "All" is heard, the impulsive mind arises. Then, necessarily, the investigating mind arises following the first mind. Even if there are many moments, the mental activity is a single investigation. It is still called the investigating mind because it hasn't yet decided on the referent of "All." As the *Yogācārabhūmi* (ch. 3) says: "Once the five sense-consciousnesses arise in a single moment, from them, without interval, the mind consciousness necessarily arises." When the next letter ("conditioned") is spoken, based on prior latencies, a connective understanding arises, producing three mind states: the impulsive, the investigating, and the deciding that comes later. The decision here is to know "All" refers to all things. The *Yogācārabhūmi* also says: "Without distraction, after investigating, the deciding mind arises. If distracted, the arising is not fixed."
Upon knowing the nature of the collection, but not yet knowing its meaning, the next letter ("things") is spoken. At this time, the list of preceding letters presents three states. But for the letter "things," there are only two states: impulsive and investigating. It hasn't yet decided on the referent of "things possessing...". Then, from the state of decision (from the previous letter "conditioned"), it reverts to investigating. The treatise only definitively states that impulsive and investigating follow without a break. After investigation, distraction is possible.
Then, the word "are" is spoken. In this case, the five minds are all present. The meaning is understandable. Through the power of the preceding letter's serial influence, it links with the next letter, culminating in the final moment where the meaning is grasped. The states of defilement/purity and continuity then activate. Thus, even though there is no past or future, the essence of teaching is formed.
If each new understanding arises with a first (impulsive) mind, each of the four letters must have an impulsive and an investigating mind. In the end, there will be 12 minds gathered simultaneously. For the 1st letter: 2 (impulsive, investigating). For the 2nd, a new deciding mind joins, totaling 3. For the 3rd, another investigating mind arises, totaling 4. For the 4th, only new deciding, defiled/pure, and continuity minds arise, adding 3, totaling 7 gathered. This is how the five minds are all complete. Therefore, the foundational teaching of Consciousness-Only is logically formed.
Now the second teaching by Dharmapāla, Sthiramati, Bandhuśrī, etc.: Generally, revealing the essence can be approached through four layers:
**1. Absorbing Mark into Nature:** The essence of all dharmas is thusness. So, the *Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra* (chapter on principal meaning) says all beings are Tathāgatagarbha. The *Śrīmālā Sūtra* says that birth-and-death is Tathāgatagarbha. The *Vimalakīrti Sūtra* says all beings, all dharmas, and all noble ones are thusness; even Maitreya is thusness. All conditioned and unconditioned phenomena are merely marks of thusness. For example, when the ocean gets hit by wind, it creates waves. Could the essence of the waves be different from water? All conditioned phenomena arise from conditions and form their own marks and essence, but they never leave thusness. Defiled seeds are inherently part of the fundamental consciousness—this is similar. All are neutral in nature.
**2. Absorbing Objects into Mind:** The essence of all dharmas is simply consciousness-only. The *Avataṃsaka Sūtra*, etc., say the triple world is mind-only. Mental factors (like feeling, perception) follow the mind-ruler, hence "consciousness-only." Countless texts provide evidence for this.
**3. Absorbing the Fictitious into the Real:** The essence of fictitious dharmas is the real dharma they depend on. Like a pot, its essence is the four elements (earth, water, fire, wind). Disassociated formations (non-congruent mental formations) are stages of form or mind; they take their stages (the real dharmas they depend on) as their essence. The *Abhidharmasamuccaya* says that the disassociated formations and karmic formations (rūpa cittastha) are provisional constructs. So, harmlessness, etc., take non-hatred, etc., as their essence. There are countless instances.
**4. Separating Nature and Function for Discussion:** Form and mind, the fictitious and the real, are in distinct categories. The *Yogācārabhūmi* says form aggregate encompasses ten sense-bases, ten sense-fields, etc. There are many such categories.
These four (plus another four: thusness, signlessness, consciousness-only, and causation) cover the meaning thoroughly and explain all dharmas accordingly. I will now briefly enlighten students so they can easily enter.
**Dharmapāla's view on the Essence of Teaching:** The essence of the scripture's teaching is the sound, names, phrases, and letters that come from the Tathāgata's consciousness, through the power of the listeners' original vows. This speech truly carries the expressible meaning and serves as the essence of the teaching. This master's meaning: sentient beings' original vows aspire to hear the Buddha's teaching. On the Tathāgata's consciousness, the marks of words and meanings arise. The listener's mind hears the Buddha's teaching and also possesses these marks of words and meanings. Therefore, the *Sūtra of the Falling Leaf Simile* says the Buddha picked up leaves and asked Ānanda to compare their number to the forest leaves, then told him that the teachings yet unspoken were far greater. Hence, all sūtras begin with "Thus have I heard."
In the *Triṃśikā-kārikā*, Vasubandhu says: "Through the conditioned power of mutual influence, two consciousnesses (speaker's and listener's) achieve decisive correspondence." The Buddha truly also speaks. The idea that he "does not speak" is an indirect, profound statement. The nature of thusness is beyond language; there are no actual events (conditions). So, the *Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra* says seeking the Tathāgata by sound will not find him. Attributing the effect to the cause, it says the transformation body is not a preacher of Dharma (because the imagined nature lacks teaching). In dependent origination (paratantra), it is like a magician speaking to a magical person—there is only a provisional speaker in the conventional sense; there is no actual speaker. The listener's mind and consciousness encounter the vision of words and meaning; in principle, this is without doubt. Therefore, the essence of scripture's teaching takes the original, undefiled words and meanings spoken by the World-Honored One as its essence.
If we take the expressive function, sound, names, etc., serve as the essence. The *Daśabhūmika Śāstra* says the speaker and hearer both reach their goal through two things: (1) sound, and (2) good words. The *Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra* and the *Yogācārabhūmi* (ch. 78) say that on the ninth ground (of a bodhisattva), two kinds of ignorance are broken: (1) ignorance concerning the immeasurable nature of the Dharma taught (the object), and (2) ignorance regarding the immeasurable names and phrases (the expression). The *Cheng Weishi Lun* (ch. 9) states these two kinds of ignorance correspond to: (1) the Dharma mastery (knowledge of the meaning), and (2) the Expression mastery (the names, phrases, letters). The sound is the expression. The *Cheng Weishi Lun* (ch. 2) further states that the conditions for these two masteries are different: expression mastery relies on the object of attachment (the name, phrase, letter), while speech clarity mastery relies on the sound organ. The *Diamond Sutra* commentary by Vasubandhu says: "If you say it is neutral, that is wrong. Why? Because your dharma is neutral, but my dharma is good. Therefore, one single Dharma Jewel surpasses immeasurable precious jewels." Thus, you should know that the teaching essence—sounds, names, phrases, letters—is itself pure, and is also good. This principle traverses both the dependent (paratantra) and the perfectly real (niṣpanna). The dependent arises from conditions; its essence being pure can also be connected to the perfectly real. The *Buddhabhūmi Śāstra* states, adhering to provisional scriptures and the Śrāvakayāna, that the 15 worlds (out of 18) are conditioned and that names, phrases, and letter-bodies are neutral. But according to the Mahāyāna, if we mean the speech sound, names, phrases, and letters of the Tathāgata's subsequent realization, they are truly good and undefiled. So both the *Buddhabhūmi Śāstra* and the *Cheng Weishi Lun* state the 18 sense-fields can be both conditioned and unconditioned. If a Ten-stage Bodhisattva or Śrāvaka preaches dharma, his speech, names, etc., are only conditioned. If a listener's mind transforms words and meanings, they can be both conditioned and unconditioned. All ordinary beings (pṛthagjanas), Śrāvakas, pratyekabuddhas, and Bodhisattvas before the seventh stage understand only the conditioned subsequent realization. Listeners of the dharma then are only conditioned. For all Śrāvakas etc., from first to seventh stage, subsequent realization is conditioned; for those from the eighth stage onwards, the sounds, names, etc., transformed on the mind are completely unconditioned. So, their dharma-teaching is according to the case. But since all respect the original, real, unconditioned Tīrthakas (the Tathāgata's words), the essence of scripture's teaching also takes the original words, etc., spoken spontaneously by the Tathāgata, and not the conditioned, fleeting noises as its essence.
The *Mahāyāna-saṃgraha* says: "Like a wish-fulfilling jewel or a divine drum, without thought they accomplish their own function." So sound etc., as the essence, appears on the speaker's consciousness without contradicting the principle of consciousness-only. If the listener's transformed consciousness is used as the teaching, that teaching would only be conditioned and have the three natures for its essence, because it shares the nature of the consciousness. According to the fourfold determination mentioned earlier, there are also four aspects for the teaching essence:
**First (Absorbing Mark into Nature):** The essence of all dharmas is thusness. The *Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra* says transformation bodies are not the real Buddha, nor are they the real preacher. The dharma spoken is not a pair of graspings; pure thusness has no words; hence the essence teaching is thusness itself. The *Vimalakīrti Sūtra* says: "The nature of words is separate and without words; this is liberation. The characteristic of liberation is all dharmas." It also says all dharmas are thusness. It again says: "The Dharma is not seen, heard, or known. If you follow seeing, hearing, or knowing, that is precisely seeing, hearing, knowing, not seeking the Dharma." Therefore, the essence of the teaching is thusness itself.
**Second (Absorbing Object into Mind):** If we take the root (speaker's consciousness), the speaker's consciousness is the essence. If we take the branch (listener), the listener's consciousness is the essence. Vasubandhu says: "Through the progressively conditioned power of influence, the two consciousnesses (speaker's and listener's) achieve decisive correspondence."
**Third (Absorbing Fictitious into Real):** The essence of interior teaching is solely sound. Names, phrases, letters are fictitious existences; they follow the real. The *Abhidharmasamuccaya* says "accomplished sound" and does not talk about names, etc.
**Fourth (Separating Nature and Function):** The essence is taken as sounds, names, phrases, letters, as they appear directly on the consciousness of the fundamental speaker (the Tathāgata). The fictitious and the real have distinct functions. The *Daśabhūmika Śāstra* says two things: (1) sound, (2) good words. These fourfold determinations are distinctions based on meaning and function; they do not violate the truth or the conventional, nor the principle of dharma-nature. Although we state "one essence," meaning does not preclude the other three—each dharma has these four aspects. The essence of all dharmas is thus determined.
Now, even though we have revealed the essence of teaching in various ways, we have not yet explained the nature of *Consciousness-Only* teachings: how, on the speaker's consciousness, there is a gathering that causes the listener to instantly generate understanding? The *Vyākhyāyukti* (ch. 12) says: "A letter that is not a name: a single letter. A name that is not a sentence: a single-word name. A sentence must have both a name and a letter. A name always has a letter; a letter need not be a name. A name need not be a sentence." In Mahāyāna, because the sound is modulated into distinctions, it is called a "name," not the notion of small vehicles.
I will explain this by describing the accumulation and display on the consciousness of the speaker and the listener. The sacred teaching says: "Do no evil, engage in good, tame the mind—that is the Buddha's teaching."
When speaking the letter "Do," the remaining "no, evil, engage in good, tame the mind, that is the Buddha's teaching" are all in the future. At the moment of hearing "Do," only one letter appears on the consciousness, along with a name formed from a single letter (this is the meaning of 'one letter becoming a name'). A single letter that does not become a name is not illuminated here.
When speaking "no," the remaining letters "evil, etc.," are in the future. The preceding letter "Do" has now entered the past and has no original object. But due to the power of previous implanting (vāsanā) and the conscious transformation itself, at this moment of speaking "no," the listener's consciousness still displays the past "Do". So there are **two single letters**, **one letter-body** (the phrase "Do not"? Check: two letters alone don't form a body in this context; the phrase needs checking), two words formed from the single letters, and two double-letter words formed with the joining.
When speaking "evil," there are three single letters (do, no, evil), two letter-bodies (Do-no? no-evil?), one triple-/multiple-letter body, three words formed from the single letters, and certain word bodies, & etc. Following the system, the listener's consciousness gathers these elements up to the total of the sentence. The complete phrase "that is the Buddha's teaching" is the end of the sentence. The process has multiple stages; in the end, the total accumulation of sounds, letters, names, words, and sentences emerges as a unified understanding.
A section, or volume, or entire scripture, logic dictates that the words, names, letters, etc., would be immeasurably numerous, and this accumulative process is the basis of teaching.
Now, if the †Sarvāstivāda view (that the Sautrāntikas critique) holds that when a later letter is spoken, the earlier letters have already ceased—thus no accumulation, no simultaneity, no clinging/contiguity, and no power of vāsanā that can bring past letters into the present consciousness—their teaching-as-condition principle can never be established. Therefore, our doctrine holds: The speaker’s teacher at the stage of cause (if not yet Buddha) accumulates a mass of letters into the store-house consciousness. This subconscious then connects to produce the next letter 'no', etc., on the consciousness “name-of-the-letter” awareness arises. Final “that is,” “Buddha's teaching” – all previous words and letters have gathered in that moment, making expression of meaning possible.
If it were the word of a Buddha, no vāsanā is needed; the presentation gathers spontaneously.
Thus, the meaning of text is thoroughly established.
Within these four ways of exposition, the perfectly real (niṣpanna) and the dependent (paratantra) each manifest, making up the proper doctrinal essence. The five dharmas are accordingly distinguished in the Mahāyāna doctrine.
Though Mahāyāna also presents skandhas, sense-fields and elements, their nature is easy and overlaps with Hinayana, thus not relied upon here.
Right. In brief, **Parikalpita-nature**: is only “self” and “dharma”—no functioning nature at all. **Paratantra-nature** and **Niṣpanna-nature** have two types: 1. Distinction between impure and pure: All undefiled dharmas are Niṣpanna, while all defiled dharmas are included in paratantra. 2. Permanent vs Impermanent: All permanent dharmas are Niṣpanna—only thusness. According to Yogācārabhūmi, out of five dharmas only thusness is perfectly real. The impure and pure aspects also include both varieties of nature.
The first of the four determinations (absorption into thusness) therefore solely belongs to niṣpanna; the remaining three can claim both.
The five dharmas (rūpa, citta etc.) will be fully treated in their respective chapter.
Thus concerning each key point, the principles from this gateway have been briefly signaled. You may adapt them systematically.
The contents herein are derived from the Great Teacher's specific, transmitted instruction. The writer’s expression is plain, but the meaning may still be worthy. I hope wise readers examine it carefully. The citation is exclusively from Mahāyāna, like sunlight not needing the stars’ assistance. If any errors, may corrections kindly be offered.
Thus closes "Dharmas's Nature and Difference."
Further details regarding meanings of other sections will be found in appropriate chapters.