Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci'en Monastery of the Great Tang Dynasty (大唐大慈恩寺三藏法師傳)

Biography of Tripitaka Master Xuanzang of the Great Ci'en Monastery in the Great Tang Dynasty, Volume 4

A King's Invitation from Campa to Kamarupa

From here, we traveled east along the south bank of the Ganges River for over three hundred li and arrived at the country of Campā(located in Central India). There were ten monasteries and over two hundred monks, all following the teachings of the Lesser Vehicle. The city walls were built of brick, rising several zhang high, with deep and wide moats at their base, making them extremely formidable and solid.

In ancient times, at the beginning of this kalpa, people all lived in caves. Later, a heavenly maiden descended among humans. While bathing in the Ganges River, a water spirit touched her body, and she gave birth to four sons. These sons divided Jambudvīpa among themselves, establishing separate territories and building cities and settlements. This city was the capital of one of those sons.

Several dozen yojanas south of the country lies a vast mountain forest, dark, dense, and stretching continuously for over two hundred li. Within it roam many wild elephants, often in herds of several hundred. For this reason, the countries of Iraṇā and Campā possess the largest elephant armies. They often send elephant trainers into this forest to capture and train elephants for the country's use. The forest is also abundant with jackals, rhinoceroses, and black leopards, making it a place no one dares to travel through.

It is said that before the Buddha appeared in the world, there was a cowherd who tended several hundred cattle. He drove them into a forest, and one cow would often leave the herd and wander off alone, disappearing for a time. When evening came and it was time to return, the cow would come back to the group. Its coat was glossy and radiant, and its lowing was unusually resonant. All the other cattle were in awe of it and none dared to stand before it.

This went on for many days. The cowherd, curious about what was happening, secretly kept watch. After a short while, the cow left again, and the cowherd followed it. He saw the cow enter a stone opening and followed it inside. After about four or five li, the passage suddenly opened into a bright, vast space. The fields and forests were luminous, filled with extraordinary flowers and fruits, dazzling to the eye—nothing like what is seen in the ordinary world. The cow grazed in one spot on grass that was fragrant, lush, and unlike any grass in the human realm.

The man saw fruit trees bearing golden and crimson fruits, fragrant and large. He picked one. Though he coveted it, he was afraid and did not dare eat it. Soon after, the cow left, and the man followed it back. Just before exiting the stone opening, a malevolent spirit snatched the fruit from him.

The cowherd later asked a great physician about this and described the fruit. The physician said he should not eat it immediately, but should find a way to bring one out first. Another day, the man followed the cow in again, picked another fruit, and hid it in his robe, intending to take it home. The spirit blocked him again to seize it. The man quickly put the fruit in his mouth, but the spirit grabbed his throat. He swallowed the fruit, and as soon as it entered his belly, his body began to swell enormously. His head managed to get out of the opening, but his body became stuck in the hole, and he could not return home.

Later, his family searched for him and found him transformed. They were all terrified, but he could still speak and told them what had happened. His family returned home and gathered many strong men to try to pull him out, but they could not move him at all. The king heard of this and came to see for himself. Fearing it might become a future calamity, he sent people to dig and pull, but they also could not move him.

As the years passed, he gradually turned to stone, though he still retained a human shape. A later king, learning that he had been transformed by an immortal fruit, said to his attendants, "Since his body was changed by the medicinal fruit, his body itself is medicine. Though he appears to be stone, his substance is ultimately divine. Send someone with a hammer and chisel to break off a small piece and bring it here."

The minister, obeying the king's command, went with craftsmen. They chiseled and drilled with all their might for ten days, but could not obtain even a single fragment. He remains there to this day.

Traveling east from there for over four hundred li, one reaches the kingdom of Karmavākīra(located in Central India). Seeking out the sacred sites, there are six or seven monasteries with over three hundred monks.

From here, crossing the Ganges River to the east and traveling over six hundred li, one arrives at the kingdom of Puṇḍravardhana(located in Southern India). Seeking out the sacred sites, there are over twenty monasteries with more than three thousand monks, who study both the Greater and Lesser Vehicles.

About twenty li west of the city is the Bhājikā Monastery, with magnificent towers and pavilions, housing seven hundred monks. Beside it stands a stūpa built by King Aśoka, marking the place where the Tathāgata once taught the Dharma for three months, often radiating light. There are also traces where four past Buddhas walked in meditation.

Nearby is a vihāra, within which is an image of Avalokiteśvara Bodhisattva. If one prays to it with utmost sincerity, no wish goes unfulfilled.

From here, traveling over nine hundred li to the southeast, one arrives at the country of Jialanashuofaluona(located in Eastern India). There are more than ten monasteries, with over three hundred monks who study the teachings of the Small Vehicle, specifically the Sammatīya school. Additionally, there are three monasteries where the monks do not consume milk or cheese—a practice inherited from the teachings of Devadatta.

Beside the great city stands the Luoduomozhi Monastery(meaning Red Clay in Tang language). Long ago, before the Buddha’s teachings had spread to this land, a monk from Southern India was traveling here as a visitor. After he refuted the heretical views of the Tirthikas who wore metal plates on their bellies, the king established this monastery for him. Next to it stands a stupa built by King Ashoka, marking the place where the Buddha once taught the Dharma for seven days.

From there, heading southeast, one arrives at the country of Samatata, located in eastern India. It borders the great sea, and the climate is mild and pleasant. There are over thirty monasteries, with more than two thousand monks who study the teachings of the Sthavira school. The temples and followers of other religious paths are also numerous.

Not far from the city stands a stupa, built by King Ashoka, marking the place where the Buddha once taught the Dharma to humans and celestial beings for seven days. A short distance away, there is another monastery. Inside it resides a statue of the Buddha carved from blue jade, eight feet tall, with dignified and serene features. A wondrous, natural fragrance constantly fills the courtyard, and auspicious, five-colored light often illuminates the sky. All who see or hear of this are profoundly inspired toward the path of awakening.

From there, traveling northeast along the coast among the mountains and valleys, lies the country of Śrīkṣetra. Further southeast along the seashore is the country of Kāmalanka. To its east is the country of Dvārapatī. Further east is the country of Īśānapura. Next east is the country of Mahācampā(This is Linyi.), and to its west lies the island country of Yavanadvīpa. All these six countries are remote, set deep among mountains and seas. Though I did not enter their territories, their general customs can be known.

The master then traveled southwest to the country of Uḍra(located in East India). There were over a hundred monasteries, with more than ten thousand monks who studied the Mahayana teachings. There were also temples of other traditions and non-Buddhist practitioners, living mixed among the faithful. More than ten stupas stood there, all built by King Aśoka, and sacred signs occasionally manifested among them.

In the southeastern part of the country, bordering the great sea, lay the city of Caritra(meaning "departure" in Tang language). It was a stopping place for merchants heading overseas and travelers from distant lands. From there, it was over twenty thousand li to the country of Siṃhala. On quiet, cloudless nights, one could gaze into the distance and see the precious pearl atop the Buddha-tooth stupa there, shining brightly like a star or torch suspended in the sky.

From there, traveling southwest through a great forest for over twelve hundred li, one arrives at the country of Kongyutu (Eastern India). Continuing southwest from there through a vast wilderness forest for fourteen or fifteen hundred li, one reaches the country of Jielingjia (Southern India). There are over ten monasteries and more than five hundred monks, who study the teachings of the Sthavira school. In the past, the population was extremely dense and prosperous, but because they disturbed and offended a sage with five supernatural powers, the sage, in his wrath, cursed them with a malevolent spell, causing all the people—young and old—to perish. Later, people gradually migrated back from other places, but the region has still not regained its former fullness.

From here, traveling northwest for over eighteen hundred li, one arrives at the country of Southern Kosala (located in Central India). The king is of the Kshatriya caste. He reveres the Buddha's teachings and values learning and the arts. There are about a hundred monasteries with ten thousand monks. The temples of other religions and the followers of non-Buddhist paths are also quite numerous and intermixed.

Not far south of the city, there is an old monastery. Beside it stands a stupa built by King Ashoka. In the past, the Tathagata manifested a great supernatural transformation here, subduing and defeating non-Buddhist teachers. Later, the Bodhisattva Nagarjuna resided in this monastery.

At that time, the king of this country was named Satavahana (meaning "Upholder of the Right"). He deeply revered Nagarjuna and provided him with generous offerings and protection. Once, the Bodhisattva Aryadeva came from the country of Simhala (Sri Lanka) seeking a debate. He arrived at the gate and requested an audience. The gatekeeper announced him.

Nagarjuna, who already knew of his reputation, filled a bowl with water and had his disciple take it out to show Aryadeva. Seeing the water, Aryadeva silently dropped a needle into it. The disciple brought the bowl back. Seeing this, Nagarjuna was greatly pleased and sighed in admiration, saying, "The water, clear and full, represents my virtue. He came and dropped a needle, thereby probing to its very bottom. Such a man is worthy of discussing the profound and deliberating on the Way, to be entrusted with transmitting the lamp of the Dharma." He immediately ordered that he be admitted.

After Aryadeva was seated, they exchanged words back and forth. Both were joyful, like fish finding water. Nagarjuna said, "I am old and declining. The bright radiance of the sun of wisdom—it lies with you, does it not?" Aryadeva rose from his seat, paid respects, and bowed at Nagarjuna's feet, saying, "Although I am not clever, I dare to accept your compassionate instruction."

In this country, there was a Brahmin skilled in the science of logic (Hetuvidya). The Master (Xuanzang) stayed for over a month, studying the *Pramana-samuccaya* (Compendium of Valid Cognition).

Continuing southeast from this great southern forest for over nine hundred miles, one arrives at the country of Andhra (located in Southern India). Beside the city stands a great monastery, magnificently carved and grandly constructed, with dignified and solemn statues. In front of it is a stone stupa, several hundred feet high, built by the Arhat Achara (meaning "practice" in Tang Chinese). About twenty miles southwest of the Arhat's monastery is a solitary mountain. On its summit stands a stone stupa, marking the place where the Bodhisattva Dignaga (meaning "bestower" in Tang Chinese) composed the *Treatise on Valid Cognition*.

Continuing south for over a thousand li, we reached the country of Dhanakataka (in southern India). East of the city, nestled against the mountains, stood the Pubasela (meaning "Eastern Mountain") Monastery. West of the city, also nestled against the mountains, was the Avalasela (meaning "Western Mountain") Monastery. These were built for the Buddha by a former king of this land, constructed on a grand scale with magnificent halls and set amidst the beauty of forests and springs. They were protected by heavenly beings and inhabited by sages and saints.

Within the first thousand years after the Buddha's passing into Nirvana, a thousand ordinary monks would gather here together for the annual summer retreat. At the end of each retreat, they would all attain Arhatship and depart by ascending into the sky. After that first millennium, ordinary and saintly practitioners lived together there. However, for the last hundred years or so, the mountain spirits changed in nature and began to harass travelers, causing such fear that no one dared go there anymore. As a result, the monasteries are now completely deserted and silent, without a single monk in residence.

Not far south of the city is a great stone mountain. This is where the Master Bhavaviveka (meaning "Clear Discernment") dwelled in the palace of the Asuras, awaiting the time when Maitreya Bodhisattva becomes a Buddha, in order to resolve his doubts.

While in this country, the Master met two monks: one named Subhuti and the other named Surya. They were well-versed in the Tripitaka of the Mahasanghika school. The Master stayed with them for several months to study the *Fundamental Abhidharma* and other texts of the Mahasanghika school. They, in turn, studied the various Mahayana treatises under the Master. Thus, forming a shared resolve, they journeyed together to visit the sacred sites.

Continuing westward over a thousand *li*, one reaches the country of Zhuliye(in Southern India). To the southeast of the city stands a stupa, built by King Ashoka. This is where the Buddha once manifested great spiritual power, subdued non-Buddhist teachers, and taught the Dharma to liberate both humans and deities.

To the west of the city lie the ruins of an old monastery. This is where the Bodhisattva Āryadeva debated with an Arhat of this monastery named Utara(meaning "Supreme" in Tang language). After the debate had progressed through seven rounds, the Arhat, having no reply, secretly employed his spiritual power to travel to the Tuṣita Heaven to ask the Bodhisattva Maitreya. Maitreya explained the point for him and added, "That Āryadeva planted the roots of merit long ago. He will attain perfect enlightenment during this Fortunate Aeon. Do not look down upon him."

Upon returning, the Arhat resolved the earlier point of difficulty. Āryadeva said, "This is the meaning of the Bodhisattva Maitreya; it is not wisdom you have attained yourself." The Arhat, ashamed and convinced, withdrew from his seat and paid homage to him in acknowledgment.

Continuing south through the great forest for about fifteen or sixteen hundred li, one arrives at the country of Dravida (in South India). Its great capital is called Kanchipura. This city of Kanchi is the birthplace of the Bodhisattva Dharmapala (meaning "Protector of the Dharma"). The Bodhisattva was the son of a minister of this country. From a young age, he was exceptionally bright and intelligent. After he came of age, the king, admiring his talent, wished to marry him to a princess. However, the Bodhisattva had long cultivated detachment from worldly desires and had no heart for love or attachment. On the very eve of the wedding, he became deeply troubled. He prayed before a Buddha image, seeking protection and wishing to escape this predicament. His sincere devotion moved a great divine king, who carried him out of the city on his back. The divine king transported him several hundred li away and placed him in the Buddha hall of a mountain monastery. When the monks saw him, they thought he was a thief. The Bodhisattva explained his circumstances. Those who heard his story were astonished and sighed, all holding his noble aspiration in high esteem. He then took monastic vows. Thereafter, he devoted himself wholeheartedly to the true Dharma, eventually mastering the various schools of thought and becoming skilled in writing treatises. He composed the *Sabdavidya-sastra* in twenty-five thousand verses, and wrote commentaries on the *Sata-sastra*, the *Vijnaptimatrata-siddhi-sastra*, and dozens of works on *Hetuvidya* (logic), all of which became widely circulated. His profound virtue and lofty talent are recorded in a separate biography.

Jianzhi City was the gateway to the southern seas of India. From there, it was a three-day sea voyage to the kingdom of Simhala. But before I could depart, the king of that country died, and the land fell into famine and disorder.

A great virtuous master named Bodhimiga (meaning "Enlightenment Cloud of Freedom") and Abhayadamshtrasena (meaning "Fearless Fanged One"), along with over three hundred other monks, had come seeking refuge in India and arrived at Jianzhi City. I met with them and asked, "I have heard that the great virtuous ones of your country are well-versed in the Three Baskets of the Sthaviravada school and the *Yogacharya-bhumi-shastra*. I intended to travel there to study. Why have you masters come here instead?"

They replied, "Our king has died, and the people are suffering from famine. There is nothing left to rely upon. We heard that Jambudvipa is prosperous, peaceful, and stable—the land where the Buddha was born, filled with many sacred sites. That is why we have come. Furthermore, you should know there are none more knowledgeable about the Dharma than us. Venerable one, if you have any doubts, please ask us freely."

I then cited key passages and major principles from the *Yogacharya-bhumi-shastra* to question them. Their explanations could not surpass those I had already received from Master Shilabhadra.

From this kingdom's border, it is over three thousand li to the country of Molajuzha(in southern India). Situated by the sea, it is extremely rich in rare treasures. East of its city stands a stupa built by King Ashoka, marking the place where the Tathagata once taught the Dharma, displayed great spiritual transformations, and liberated countless beings.

South of the country, bordering the sea, lies Mount Molaye. Its cliffs and valleys are lofty and deep. Within them grow white sandalwood trees and *chanzhan-nipo* trees. These trees resemble white poplars in form; their wood is cool to the touch. Snakes often cling to them, hibernating there until winter—this is how one distinguishes true sandalwood. There are also *jiebulo* incense trees. They have pine-like trunks but different leaves, and their flowers and fruits are also distinct. When fresh, they have no fragrance, but after being gathered and dried, if you break a piece open, inside there is an aromatic substance resembling mica in appearance and as white as ice and snow. This is what is called dragon-brain incense.

I have also heard that by the northeast sea, there was a city. From that city, traveling over three thousand li to the southeast, one reaches the country of Simhala(In Tang language, this means "Lion-Catcher." It is not within the borders of India.). The country is over seven thousand li in circumference, and its capital city is over forty li around. The households are prosperous and dense, the grain crops are abundant and rich. The people are dark-skinned, of small stature, and of a hasty, fierce temperament—such are their customs.

The land was originally a jeweled isle, with many rare treasures. Later, a woman from southern India was betrothed to a neighboring country. On the journey, she encountered a lion king. The attendants escorting her were terrified and fled in all directions, leaving the woman alone in the carriage. The lion approached, saw her, carried her off on his back, and went far into the deep mountains. He gathered fruit and hunted game to provide for her.

As the years passed, they bore children, a boy and a girl. Though their form was human-like, their nature was fierce and wild. When the boy grew older, he asked his mother, "What kind of beings are we? Our father is a beast, our mother a human." His mother then recounted the past events to him.

Her son said, "Since humans and beasts are so different, why not leave him and stay together?" His mother replied, "It is not that I have no wish to, but there is no way to escape."

Later, the son followed his father, traversing the mountains and valleys, observing the paths he took. One day, waiting until his father had gone far away, he shouldered his mother and sister, descended, and sought refuge among human settlements. They reached his mother's original country and inquired after her brother's family, but the lineage had died out. They settled in a village.

When the lion king returned and could not find his wife and children, he roared in fury and emerged from the mountains. His savage roars reached the human villages, and many men and women who came and went fell victim to him. The people reported the matter to their king. The king led his fourfold army, selected and recruited fierce warriors, intending to surround and shoot the lion. When the lion saw them, he roared in anger, causing men and horses to fall back; none dared to advance. This went on for many days, yet they achieved no success.

The king again posted a reward and proclaimed that whoever could kill the lion would be granted a fortune in gold. The son said to his mother, "It is hard to live in hunger and cold. I wish to answer the king's call for recruits. What do you think?" His mother said, "You must not. Though he is a beast, he is still your father. If you kill him, how could you still be called human?"

Her son replied, "If we do not do this, he will never leave. He might even track us down and come into the villages. Once the king learns of it, we will still face death, and he will not spare us. Why? The lion's violence is because of you, mother, and because of me. How can we let one being cause trouble for so many? After thinking it over, it is better to answer the call." And so he went.

When the lion saw him, it became tame and joyful, showing no intention to harm him. The son then took a sharp knife, slit its throat, and tore open its belly. Despite suffering this agony, the lion's loving affection ran deep. It endured the pain without moving, and thus its life ended.

The king heard of this and was delighted, but found it strange. He questioned him, "What was the reason for this?" The son would not tell the truth. Only after being pressed relentlessly in various ways did he relate the full story.

The king said, "Alas! If not for one born of a beast, who could have conceived such a resolve? Nevertheless, I promised a reward first, and I will not go back on my word. However, you killed your father; you are a rebellious person who can no longer dwell in my country." He ordered his officials to give him much gold and treasure, and banished him to the wild frontiers. They prepared two ships, loaded them with ample gold, provisions, and supplies, set them upon the sea, and let them drift wherever the currents took them.

The man's ship drifted across the sea to this jeweled isle. Seeing its abundant wonders and delights, they settled there. Later, merchants brought their families to gather treasures and again came to this place. The man killed the merchants and kept their women. Thus they produced offspring, and after countless generations, the population gradually increased, and they established rulers and subjects. Because their distant ancestor captured and killed a lion, they took this as the name of their country.

The woman's ship drifted across the sea to the west of Persia, where they were taken by demonic spirits and gave birth to many daughters. This is the present-day Great Western Country of Women.

It is also said that Simhala was the name of a merchant's son. Because of his great wisdom, he escaped harm from the rakshasa demons. Later he became king, came to this jeweled isle, exterminated the rakshasas, and established a royal capital. The country was named after him. This account is recorded in the *Records of the Western Regions*.

This kingdom originally had no Buddhist teachings. About a hundred years after the Tathagata’s Parinirvana, King Ashoka’s brother, Mahendra, grew weary of worldly desires, attained the four fruits of the Shramana path, traveled through the skies, and came to this land to spread the Dharma. He demonstrated spiritual powers and praised the Buddha’s teachings. The people, moved by faith and admiration, built monasteries. Over a hundred temples were established, with ten thousand monks practicing both the Mahayana and the Sthaviravada traditions. The monastic community was dignified and pure, upholding the precepts with clarity and encouraging one another diligently.

Beside the royal palace stands a shrine housing a tooth relic of the Buddha. It rises several hundred feet high, adorned with various precious substances. At its pinnacle is a pillar topped with a great padmarāga gem, whose radiance illuminates the sky. On clear, cloudless nights, its light can be seen even from ten thousand miles away. Nearby is another shrine, also decorated with assorted jewels. Inside is a golden image made by a former king of this land, its topknot set with a priceless pearl.

Once, a thief tried to steal this pearl. Finding the guards too vigilant to enter openly, he tunneled underground into the shrine. But as he reached for the pearl, the image gradually grew taller, keeping it out of his reach. Stepping back, the thief said, “When the Tathagata cultivated the bodhisattva path in the past, he spared neither his life nor his kingdom for the sake of all beings. Why is he so stingy today? Thinking this way, I fear the old stories may not be true.” At these words, the image bent down and offered him the pearl.

After obtaining it, the thief went to sell it. Someone who recognized the pearl seized him and brought him before the king. When questioned about how he got it, the thief replied, “The Buddha himself gave it to me,” and recounted what had happened. The king went to see for himself and found the image’s head still bowed. Witnessing this divine response, the king felt a deeper faith. He ransomed the pearl from the thief with many treasures and restored it to the image’s topknot, where it remains to this day.

In the southeastern part of the kingdom stands the Laṅkā Mountain, where many spirits and ghosts dwell. In the past, the Tathagata preached the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra on this mountain.

In the south of the country, one crosses the sea for several thousand li and arrives at Nalajila Island. The islanders are short in stature, just over three chi tall, with human bodies and bird-like beaks. They do not cultivate crops, but live on coconuts. The seas around that land are vast and the waves immense, making it impossible to reach in person. This account is based on what has been gathered from those who have heard it, and thus is only a general outline.

From Dravida, I traveled northwest with over seventy monks from the Lion Kingdom, visiting and paying respects at sacred sites. After journeying more than two thousand li, we reached the country of Karnapura in southern India.

There were over a hundred monasteries here, with more than ten thousand monks who studied both the Mahayana and Hinayana traditions. There were also many temples and followers of non-Buddhist paths.

Beside the royal city stood a large monastery housing over three hundred monks, all of them widely learned. In one of its shrines was preserved the jeweled crown of Prince Sarvārthasiddha—formerly mispronounced as Prince Siddhartha. The crown, less than two feet tall, was kept in a precious casket. On observance days, it was placed on a high platform, and those who viewed it with sincere devotion often witnessed a wondrous radiance.

In another shrine within a monastery near the city was a sandalwood statue of the Bodhisattva Maitreya, over ten feet tall. It too frequently emitted auspicious light. This image was said to have been made by the Arhat Śroṇa-koṭīviṃśa.

North of the city lay a grove of tāla trees, spanning more than thirty li. Their leaves were long and lustrous, and were considered the most precious material for writing scriptures throughout the various lands.

From here, traveling northwest through a great forest and a wilderness of fierce beasts for about two thousand four or five hundred li, one reaches the kingdom of Mahārāṣṭra (in Southern India).

The local custom is to hold life lightly and honor integrity highly. The king is of the Kṣatriya caste. He has a fondness for military affairs and esteems warfare. Therefore, his kingdom's soldiers and horses are well-equipped, and laws and decrees are strict and clear. Whenever a general is sent to battle the enemy, even if he loses his army and suffers defeat, he is not punished physically. Instead, he is given women's clothing to wear, causing him shame and disgrace. Those men, feeling such humiliation, often take their own lives. The king constantly maintains several thousand fierce warriors and several hundred savage war elephants. When about to face the enemy in battle, they also drink heavily. Judging when they are nearly intoxicated, he then gives the signal with his banner. Charging forth with this ferocity, there has never been a line they did not break through. Relying on this, they are arrogant and haughty, paying no regard to neighboring rivals. Even King Śilāditya, who considered his own strategies grand and far-reaching and his armies powerful and strong, could not subdue them whenever he personally led a punitive expedition.

There are over a hundred monasteries, with more than five thousand monks who study both the Greater and Lesser Vehicles. There are also temples of the celestial deities and followers of the ash-smeared path.

Inside and outside the great city are five stūpas, each several hundred feet high. These are sites where the four past Buddhas traveled and stayed, built by King Aśoka.

From there, traveling northwest for over a thousand *li* and crossing the Naimoduo River, one reaches the kingdom of Baluojieqianpo (located in Southern India). From this kingdom, going northwest for over two thousand *li*, one arrives at the kingdom of Molapo (a Southern Lala kingdom, in Southern India). The customs here are gentle and harmonious, with a deep respect for learning and the arts. Among the five regions of India, only the southwestern kingdom of Molapo and the northeastern kingdom of Magadha are praised as lands of diligent study and esteem for the virtuous, where people are skilled in conversation and possess graceful refinement.

In this kingdom, there are over a hundred monasteries and more than ten thousand monks, who study the teachings of the Sammatīya school of the Lesser Vehicle. There are also followers of heterodox paths, such as the ash-smeared ascetics who worship celestial beings.

It is traditionally said that sixty years ago, there was a king named Shiladitya, who was highly talented, widely learned, benevolent, kind, and harmonious. He cherished and nurtured the common people, and deeply revered the Three Jewels. From the beginning of his reign until his passing, harsh words never left his lips, and his countenance never showed anger. He took care not to wound the feelings of his ministers and subjects, nor to harm even the forms of mosquitoes and ants. Whenever elephants or horses drank water, he had it filtered first before they drank, fearing harm to the lives dwelling in the water. Moreover, he commanded the people of his kingdom to abstain from killing. Because of this, wild beasts grew tame around humans, wolves and jackals ceased their venomous attacks, the realm became peaceful and tranquil, and auspicious signs arose daily.

He constructed exquisite monasteries, achieving the utmost in splendor and beauty. He established images of the Seven Buddhas and held boundless charitable assemblies. Such virtuous deeds he continued without pause for over fifty years of his reign. The common people cherish his memory to this day.

About twenty *li* northwest of the great city, beside a Brahmin village, there is a sunken pit. This is the place where an arrogant Brahmin slandered the Great Vehicle and fell alive into hell. The account is recorded in the *Records of the Western Regions*.

From here, traveling northwest for about 2,400 to 2,500 li, one reaches the country of Aṭali(in Southern India). The land produces pepper trees, whose leaves resemble those of Sichuan pepper; it also produces frankincense trees, whose leaves are similar to those of the Chinese pear-leaved crabapple.

From here, traveling northwest for three days, one arrives at the country of Kheṭa(in Southern India). From there, heading north for over a thousand li, one comes to the country of Valabhī(in Southern India). There are over a hundred monasteries here, with more than six thousand monks and disciples, who study the teachings of the Sammatīya school of the Hinayana.

During the Tathāgata's time, he repeatedly visited this country. Wherever King Aśoka followed the Buddha, he erected memorial markers. The present king is of the Kṣatriya caste. He is the son-in-law of King Śīlāditya of the country of Kanyakubja, and his title is Durlabhavardhana(meaning "Descendant of the Emperor"). His temperament is impatient, and his demeanor is somewhat rough and casual. Nevertheless, he values virtue and esteems learning, faithfully cherishing the Three Jewels. Each year he holds a great assembly for seven days, inviting monks from various countries, offering them exquisite delicacies and rare treasures, beds and seats, clothing, and even supplies of medicine—all provided in full.

From there, traveling northwest for over seven hundred *li*, one reaches the country of Anandapura(in Western India). Traveling northwest again for over five hundred *li*, one arrives at the country of Surashtra(in Western India). From here, going northeast for eighteen hundred *li*, one reaches the country of Gurjara. Then, traveling southeast for over twenty-eight hundred *li*, one arrives at the country of Ujjayani(in Southern India). Not far from the city stands a stupa, built by King Ashoka on the site of a former hell.

From this place, traveling northeast for over a thousand *li*, one reaches the country of Cedi(in Southern India). From there, heading northeast for over nine hundred *li*, one arrives at the country of Maheshvarapura(in Central India). From here, one returns west again to the country of Surashtra.

Setting out once more from here to the west, one reaches the country of Adambat(in Western India). During the Tathagata's time, he frequently visited this land. Wherever there was a sacred site associated with him, King Ashoka erected a stupa, and these all remain to this day.

From here, traveling west for over two thousand *li*, one reaches the country of Langala(in Western India). It borders the great sea and lies on the route toward the Land of Women in the west.

From here, traveling northwest, one reaches the country of Polasi (in the northern region of India). It is said that this land abounds in pearls, jewels, magnificent brocades, and fine woolens. Excellent horses and camels are also produced there. There are two or three monasteries with several hundred monks, who study the teachings of the Sarvāstivāda school of the Lesser Vehicle. The alms bowl of the Buddha Śākyamuni is kept in the royal palace of this country.

To the east of the country lies the city of Hemo. To the northwest, it borders the country of Folin. On an island in the southwestern sea is the Western Women's Kingdom, inhabited solely by women with no men. It possesses many precious goods and is a dependency of Folin. The king of Folin annually sends men to pair with them. According to their custom, any male child born is, as a rule, not raised.

Again, from the country of Langjieluo, heading northeast for over seven hundred *li*, one arrives at the country of Biduoshiluo (in the western region of India). Within it stands a stupa several hundred feet high, built by King Aśoka. It contains relics that frequently emit a radiant light. This is the place where the Tathāgata, in a former life as a sage, was harmed by a king.

From here, traveling northeast for over three hundred li, one arrives at the country of Avanda (located in Western India). In a great forest northeast of the city, there are the old foundations of a monastery. This is where the Buddha once permitted the bhikkhus to wear leather boots. There is a stupa built by King Ashoka. Beside it is a vihara, within which stands a stone Buddha image that often emits a radiant light.

Further south about eight hundred paces, in a great forest, there is another stupa built by King Ashoka. This is where the Tathagata once stayed. The night was cold, so he covered himself with his three robes. At daybreak, he permitted the bhikkhus to wear patched robes.

From there, we traveled east another seven hundred li and arrived at the country of Sindhu (located in Western India). The land produces gold, silver, brass, cattle, sheep, camels, red salt, white salt, black salt, and other things; people from other regions gather these salts for use as medicine. During the Tathagata's time, he visited this country on numerous occasions. King Ashoka erected stupas at all the sacred sites to mark them. There are also traces of the travels and teachings of the great Arhat Upagupta.

From there, traveling east over nine hundred li, crossing the river to its eastern bank, one arrives at the country of Maoluosambulu(in Western India). The local custom is to worship celestial deities. Their temples are magnificent and imposing, and the statues of the deities are cast from gold and adorned with various precious gems. People from many countries come here to make offerings and prayers. Flowering groves, ponds, and pools connect with the stone steps and wind along the terraces. All who behold this sight cannot help but admire and delight in it.

From there, heading northeast for over seven hundred *li*, one arrives at the country of Bofaduoduo (located in North India). Beside the city stands a great monastery, where over a hundred monks all study the Mahayana. It was here that the Master Shinnafotaluo (in Tang language, meaning "Supreme Son") composed the *Commentary on the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra*. This was also the original place of ordination for Masters Xian'ai and Deguang. Furthermore, in this country there were two or three great virtuous ones, all of whom pursued studies worthy of respect. The Master therefore stayed for two years, studying the *Fundamental Abhidharma* of the Saṃmatīya school, as well as the *Compendium of the True Dharma*, the *Treatise on the Teaching of Reality*, and other texts.

From there, heading southeast again, he returned to the Temple of Insatiable Giving in Magadha to pay his respects to the Keeper of the True Dharma. Hearing that three *yojanas* west of the temple was the Tiladhakā Monastery, where there was a great virtuous renunciant named Prajñāgupta—originally from the country of Bolaruobodi, ordained in the Sarvāstivāda school, and skilled in his own school's Tripitaka as well as *śabda-vidyā* (linguistics), *hetu-vidyā* (logic), and other studies—the Master went and stayed for two months, consulting him to resolve his doubts.

From there, he traveled on to the Bamboo Grove Mountain, to the lay scholar Master Shengjun. Master Shengjun was originally from the country of Surashtra, of the Kshatriya caste. From a young age he was fond of learning. First, under Master Xian'ai, he studied *Hetuvidya* (Logic). Then, from the Bodhisattva Shiramati, he studied *Sabdavidya* (Grammar and Philology) and the treatises of both the Greater and Lesser Vehicles. He also studied the *Yogacharya-bhumi-shastra* under Master Jiexian. Moreover, he thoroughly investigated the root and branches of foreign texts, the four Vedas, astronomy, geography, medicine, divination, and numerology—leaving nothing unexamined. Having mastered both Buddhist and non-Buddhist learning, his virtue was revered by his contemporaries.

The king of Magadha, King Manjushri, who esteemed the worthy and honored scholars, was delighted upon hearing of his reputation and sent an envoy to invite him, appointing him as State Preceptor and granting him twenty large estates. The Master declined. After King Manjushri passed away, King Shiladitya again invited him to be his teacher, offering him eighty large estates in the country of Uda. The Master also declined. The king repeatedly and earnestly pressed his invitation, but the Master firmly refused each time, saying to the king, "Shengjun has heard that one who accepts another's stipend must share their worries. I am now devoted to rescuing beings from the urgent entanglements of birth and death—how could I have leisure to attend to royal affairs?" Having said this, he bowed and left. The king could not detain him.

From then on, he regularly resided at Bamboo Grove Mountain, nurturing disciples and giving instruction, constantly lecturing on the Buddhist scriptures. Monastics and laypeople revered and gathered around him, often numbering over several hundred. The Dharma Master studied with him for a total of two years, learning the *Vijnapti-matrata-siddhi-shastra*, the *Arthapatti-shastra*, the *Abhaya-siddhi-shastra*, the *Non-abiding Nirvana*, the *Twelve Links of Dependent Origination treatise*, the *Mahayana-sutralamkara-shastra*, and also resolving his doubts concerning the *Yogacharya-bhumi* and *Hetuvidya*.

One night, he suddenly dreamed that the Nalanda Monastery's buildings and courtyards were desolate and overgrown, with only water buffalo tethered there, and no monks remained. In the dream, the Dharma Master entered through the west gate of King Baladitya's compound and saw on the fourth level of a pavilion a golden figure, dignified in form and appearance, filling the room with light. His heart filled with joy, but he had no way to ascend. He then requested the figure to extend a hand and pull him up. The figure said, "I am Manjushri Bodhisattva. Due to your karmic conditions, you cannot come here yet." He then pointed outside the monastery and said, "Look there." Following the direction pointed, the Dharma Master looked and saw a great fire burning outside the monastery, consuming villages and towns, reducing them all to ashes. The golden figure said, "You should return early. Ten years from now, King Shiladitya will pass away. India will fall into chaos and famine, with wicked people harming one another. You should know this." Having spoken, he disappeared.

The Dharma Master awoke, feeling strange and sighing with emotion, and recounted it to Shengjun. Shengjun said, "The three realms offer no safety; perhaps it will be so. Since you have received this warning, you may act according to your own judgment." From this, we know that the actions of great beings are all watched over and protected by the Bodhisattvas. When he was about to go to India, he was advised by Manjushri to wait for Xuanzang; when he lingered and had not returned, he was shown impermanence to urge his return. If his actions had not resonated with the sage's mind, who could have elicited such responses?

At the end of the Yonghui era, King Shiladitya indeed passed away, and a famine struck India, just as had been foretold. The imperial envoy Wang Xuance personally witnessed these events. This occurred at the beginning of the first lunar month. According to the custom of the western kingdoms, during this month, the Buddha's relics were displayed at the Bodhi Temple, and people from various countries, both monastics and lay followers, came to pay their respects. Master Xuanzang went with Shengjun to see them. They saw relic bones, some large and some small. The larger ones were like round pearls, glowing with red and white light. There were also flesh relics the size of peas, smooth and crimson in appearance. A vast crowd offered incense and flowers, paid their respects, and then the relics were returned to the stupa.

Late that night, after the first watch, Shengjun discussed the varying sizes of the relics with the Master, saying, "This disciple has seen relics elsewhere that are as small as grains of rice. Why are the ones we saw today so large? Does the Master have any doubts about this?" Master Xuanzang replied, "I, Xuanzang, also have this doubt."

A short while later, the lamps in the room suddenly went out, yet the inside and outside became brightly illuminated. Puzzled, they went outside to look. They saw radiant light emanating upwards from the relic stupa, its flames soaring to the heavens, containing a spectrum of five colors. The heavens and earth were illuminated as if in broad daylight, outshining the stars and moon. At the same time, a wondrous, pervasive fragrance filled the monastery grounds. People quickly spread the news, saying the relics were manifesting a great divine marvel. Upon hearing this, the assembly gathered once more to pay homage, exclaiming in praise of this rare occurrence.

After about the time of a meal, the light gradually began to recede. As it was about to vanish completely, it circled the alms bowl several times before finally withdrawing entirely. Then heaven and earth returned to darkness, and the stars and constellations reappeared. Having witnessed this, all those present were freed from their web of doubt.

After paying homage at the Bodhi Tree and other sacred sites for eight days, they returned to Nalanda Monastery.

At that time, Master Jiexian sent Master Xuanzang to lecture to the assembly on the *Mahāyāna-saṃgraha-śāstra* and the *Vijñapti-mātratā-siddhi-śāstra*. At the same time, the Venerable Shiziguang had been lecturing to the assembly on the *Madhyamaka-śāstra* and the *Śata-śāstra*, explaining their tenets to refute the principles of the *Yogācāra*. Master Xuanzang was profoundly versed in both the *Madhyamaka* and *Śata-śāstra*, and was also skilled in the *Yogācāra*. He considered that the teachings established by the sages each followed a particular intent and did not contradict or obstruct one another. Those who were confused could not reconcile them and claimed they were in opposition—this was a failing of the transmitter, not of the Dharma itself. Pitying Shiziguang's narrow view, Master Xuanzang repeatedly went to question him, but Shiziguang could not respond. As a result, his students gradually dispersed and turned to follow Master Xuanzang.

Master Xuanzang further pointed out that the tenets of the *Madhyamaka* and *Śata-śāstra* only refute the imagined nature, and do not deny the dependent nature and the perfected nature. Shiziguang failed to grasp this subtle point; seeing the treatises state that "nothing whatsoever is attained," he claimed that the perfected nature and other principles established in the *Yogācāra* must also be rejected, and he often expressed this view. In order to harmonize the two schools and show that their teachings are not contradictory, Master Xuanzang composed the *Harmonizing the Tenets Treatise* in three thousand verses. When the treatise was completed, he presented it to Master Jiexian and the great assembly. All praised it as excellent, and together they circulated it widely.

Shiziguang, feeling ashamed and resentful, then left for the Bodhi Monastery. He summoned a fellow student from East India named Candrasaṃgha to come and debate, hoping to clear his former disgrace. But when this man arrived, he was awed by Master Xuanzang's authority and remained silent, not daring to raise any arguments. Master Xuanzang's reputation thus grew even greater.

Before Master Shiziguang had departed, King Shiladitya had built a bronze monastery beside Nalanda Monastery, over ten zhang tall, known throughout all kingdoms. Later, the king personally led a campaign against Kongyutuo. While passing through the country of Uda, he found that all the monks there studied the Hinayana teachings and did not believe in the Mahayana, dismissing it as an empty-flower heresy not spoken by the Buddha. When they saw the king arrive, they mocked him, saying, "We heard Your Majesty built a bronze monastery beside Nalanda—a magnificent and grand project. Why didn’t you build it beside the Kapalika heretics’ temple instead, choosing only that place?" The king replied, "Why do you say such a thing?" They answered, "Because Nalanda Monastery is a den of empty-flower heretics, no different from the Kapalika."

Earlier, the royal preceptor of the king of South India, an elderly Brahmin named Prajñagupta, who was well-versed in the doctrines of the Sammitiya school, had composed a treatise called *The Refutation of the Mahayana* in seven hundred verses. All the Hinayana masters praised and revered it. They presented it to the king, saying, "Our school’s position is like this. Could any Mahayana scholar refute even a single word of it?" The king said, "I have heard that when a fox walks among mice, it thinks itself mightier than a lion. But when it actually sees the lion, its spirit flees and its courage shatters. You masters have not yet encountered the great virtues of the Mahayana, so you stubbornly cling to your foolish doctrines. If you were to meet them, I fear you would become just like that fox." They replied, "If Your Majesty doubts this, why not gather both sides for a debate to settle what is right and wrong?" The king said, "That should not be difficult." That very day, he sent a messenger with a letter to Nalanda Monastery, addressed to the Dharma-Keeper, Master Shilabhadra:

"Your disciple, while traveling through Uda, has encountered Hinayana masters who, relying on their narrow views, have composed a treatise slandering the Mahayana. Their arguments are sharp and harmful, far from reasonable, and they are eager to spread their scales, wishing to debate with you and your community. Your disciple knows that the great virtuous ones in the monastery are all abundantly talented and wise, with comprehensive learning. I have already agreed on their behalf. I respectfully report this and request that you select four great virtuous ones, skilled in both their own and others’ schools, and well-versed in both Buddhist and non-Buddhist teachings, to come to the royal camp in the country of Uda."

After receiving the letter, the Dharma-Keeper gathered the community to deliberate and select. In the end, he chose four individuals: Haihui, Zhiguang, Shiziguang, and the Master [Xuanzang], to respond to the king’s summons. Haihui and the others were all worried, but the Master said to them, "I have studied the entire Tripitaka of the various Hinayana schools, both in my homeland and since arriving in Kashmir, and I fully understand their doctrines. If they intend to use their teachings to refute the principles of the Mahayana, it is ultimately impossible. Although my learning is shallow and my wisdom modest, I will certainly be able to handle it. I hope you virtuous ones need not trouble yourselves with worry. If I should fail, it will be the failure of a monk from the land of China and will have nothing to do with the rest of you." Everyone was pleased.

Later, another letter arrived from the king, stating, "The great virtuous ones previously requested need not set out immediately. Please await further instructions."

At that time, the Master intended to travel to Uḍra. He then managed to obtain a text of some seven hundred verses, composed by followers of the Hinayana school, titled *Refutation of Mahayana Doctrine*. Upon reading it, the Master found several points that seemed doubtful. He asked the Brahmin he had subdued earlier, "Have you ever studied this doctrine?"

The Brahmin replied, "I have studied it five times."

The Master wished him to explain it. The Brahmin said, "I am now a servant. How could I presume to lecture my master?"

The Master said, "This is a doctrine of another school, which I have not encountered. Please explain it without concern."

The Brahmin said, "If so, let us wait until nightfall. I fear if outsiders hear that my master is learning Dharma from a servant, it would tarnish your reputation."

Thus, when night came, he dismissed all others and had the Brahmin explain the text once through. The Master fully grasped its tenets. He then identified its erroneous points, elaborated the Mahayana doctrine to refute it, and composed a work of sixteen hundred verses titled *Treatise on Destroying Wrong Views*. He presented it to Master Śīlabhadra and showed it to the assembly of disciples. All sighed in admiration, saying, "With such thorough investigation, what adversary could withstand it?" The treatise is recorded separately.

The Master then said to the Brahmin, "Sir, your doctrine was defeated and you were reduced to servitude, which is shame enough. I now release you. You may go wherever you wish."

The Brahmin joyfully took his leave and departed. He went to the kingdom of Kāmarūpa in eastern India and spoke to King Kumāra about the Master's virtue and teachings. The king was greatly pleased upon hearing this and immediately dispatched an envoy to invite him.

Biography of the Tripitaka Master of the Great Ci'en Temple, Tang Dynasty: Volume Four